Cultural Research

The meaning of a behavior is dependent on the cultural context in which it occurs.

unconfound variables

two variables that may be linked in one culture may be unrelated in another culture

Cultural Psychology Research Goals

1. Test existing psychological concepts 2. Explore the role of culture in shaping behavior

Validity

Am I measuring what I think I'm measuring?

Reliability

Will I get the same outcome each time I measure this construct?

Equivalence

similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical method between cultures ( a state of no bias)

Bias

existence of differences that do not have exactly the same meaning within and across cultures (a state of non-equivalence)

Conceptual Bias

the initial ideas that guide a researcher’s ideas about a topic (model & construct) Model: are the theories and hypotheses being tested and studied even meaningful in the culture being studied Construct: are psychological constructs defined the same way in the cultures being studied

Method Bias

how a researcher goes about planning their study (sampling, language, procedure) Sampling: are samples appropriate representatives of cultures Linguistic: are research protocols semantically equivalent across languages? Procedural: are procedures, environments, and settings equivalent across cultures?

Measurement bias

-the specific questionnaires/measures the researcher chooses for the study -are the concepts we are interested in researching truly captured in the measures used?

Response Bias

how culture might affect the way participants respond to questions

Interpretation Bias

how does the researcher choose to interpret the results from the study

Environmental stewardship

contemporary shift: increasing numbers of Americans now value environmental protection, climate responsibility, and sustainable living Kohls focused on control over nature rather than sustainability or conservation

Social Justice and Equity

evolving perspectives: current American values increasingly include concern for addressing inequality based on race, gender, sexuality, and class While Kohls mentions equality, his emphasis is more on "equal opportunity" than systemic equity or justice.

Diversity and multiculturalism

defining element of American values: inclusion and appreciation for diverse identities (e.g., racial, ethnic, religious, gender, etc) increasing emphasis starting in the 1980s to present (multicultural psychology as a discipline emerged in the late 1980s)

Community and Interdependence

many Americans (especially in immigrant, indigenous, or other collectivist communities) place a high value on mutual aid, social networks, and community well-being Kohls' emphasized individualism and self-reliance

Freedom and expression and dissent

freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom to protest or the right to dissent are central to American civic identity Kohls’ identifies openness and honesty, but not the the fundamental American value articulated in the constitution

Technological innovation and progress

technological leadership and a future-oriented mindset are now core to American identity Kohls’ values of "change" and "efficiency" hint at this, but don’t specifically identify the high value Americans place on technology and innovation

Work-life balance and mental health awareness

younger generations especially may be less likely to embrace work to the exception of friends, family, mental health, and self-care; covid impacted this shift in U.S. society as well. Kohls emphasizes productivity and work, but does not address the increasing importance placed on mental health, self-care, and balancing life and work

Exploratory Testing

examines existence of cultural similarities or differences

Hypothesis Testing

examines why cultural differences exist, includes context factors

Structure-oriented

compare constructs, construct measurements, or their relationships with other constructs across cultures

Level-oriented

compare mean levels of scores between cultures

Individual level

data from individuals as the unit of analysis

Ecological/cultural level

data with country/culture as the unit of analysis

Ecological fallacy

taking findings from the ecological level and applying them to the individual

WEIRD

Westernized, educated people from industrialized, rich democracies

Socially desirable responding

responses that make oneself look good

Acquiscence bias

tendency to agree to items rather than disagree

Extreme response bias

tendency to use ends of a scale

Reference group effect

when comparing oneself to one’s own group a person may see themselves as less independent or less collectivistic

Microsystem

contexts that directly affect children (e.g., family, religious group, neighborhood play area, peers, school)

Mesosystem

link between microsystems (e.g., interaction between school and family)

Exosystem

contexts the indirectly affect children (e.g., parent’s workplace, neighbors, friends of family, social welfare services, legal services)

Macrosystem

culture, religion, society

Chronosystem

influence of time and history on the other systems

Authoritarian

unquestioned obedience, child needs to be controlled; low warmth and responsiveness toward children

Permissive

warm and nurturing, children regulate own lives, few firm guidelines

Authoritative

firm, fair, and reasonable; high degree of warmth and affection - parenting predicts higher school achievement for European American, African American and Hispanic American adolescents but not for Asian American adolescents

Uninvolved

do not respond to children appropriately, seem indifferent, meet minimum needs

Protection

situations in which a child needs comfort, needs to feel secure, needs to be protected from harm; children develop a sense of security and learn to regulate distress

Control

teaching a child to regulate their own behavior in the context of cultural expectations; children need to learn to follow societal rules to function in society, holding back their own desires to follow rules; appropriate levels of control or discipline allow a child to internalize rules

Reciprocity

helping a child learn to cooperate

Guided Learning

helping a child learn specific skills (e.g., self-care, riding public transportation, academic skills)

Group participation

providing opportunities to participate in social groups and social practices (e.g., observational learning, participation in customs/traditions)

Goodness of Fit

how well a child’s temperament matches the expectations and values of the parent or parental culture. Mismatch: more negative child outcomes are expected Good match: better child outcomes are expected

Attachment

The meaning of separation may differ across cultures. Better to assess if the behavior is adaptive or maladaptive to the specific context

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

There is variation in the ages of stages and in the specific skills within stages. The environment matters

Temperament

innate set of traits that underlie how individuals react to the environment and regulate their emotions and behaviors

Zone of proximal development

The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with support

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development

a person’s learning and cognitive development are fundamentally shaped by social interactions and their surrounding culture.

Developmental contextualism

human development is shaped by continuous, bidirectional interactions between a person and their social, cultural, and physical environments

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

we can only understand child development by looking at a child in relation to their contexts

Ethnocentrism

All people have "the tendency to view the world through one's own cultural filters". The key thing then is to try to understand our own culture, so that we can be more aware of what our filters might be.

Perception of Others

we are constantly making judgements about people we meet and interact with.

In groups and out groups

For example, it's possible to be in more than one club/activity in high school or college; and one could move in and out of these groups more easily (i.e., you can join soccer in one year and decide to be in the marching band the next). In contrast, people in collectivistic cultures tend to have fewer in-groups, with greater commitment to those groups.

Microaggressions

"brief, everyday exchanges that send denigrating messages to a target group" "often subtle in nature and can be manifested in the verbal, nonverbal, visual, or behavioral realm" "often enacted automatically and unconsciously”

Terror Management Theory

because humans have the cognitive ability to be aware of our inevitable death, we have created deliberate strategies to protect ourselves from our fear of that inevitable death.

Infrahumanization

cognitive bias in which individuals recognize their own group (the ingroup) as fully human, while implicitly denying full humanity to others (the outgroup)

Ingroup derogation

individuals evaluate members of their own social group less favorably than members of an outgroup

Confirmation Bias

tendency to favor, seek out, and interpret information in ways that confirm preexisting beliefs or expectations.

Contact Hypothesis

Optimal intergroup contact requires equal status, common goals, cooperation, and support of authorities, law, or custom to reduce prejudice effectively.

acculturation

the process by which individuals or groups adjust to a new cultural environment, adopting behaviors, values, or norms from another culture while maintaining aspects of their original culture.

Berry’s Four Acculturation Strategies

Integration, Assimilation, Separation, Marginalization

Cultural Fit Hypothesis

people perform better and feel more satisfied when their personal values and behaviors match the values and culture of the organization or group they belong to.

Universal vs. Culture- Specific

"Universal" refers to traits or behaviors shared across all human cultures, while "culture-specific" refers to traits or behaviors unique to or significantly shaped by a particular culture.

Ratchet Efffect

how human culture preserves and improves ideas over time, allowing unique traits in each culture to build on universal human abilities.

Enculturation

individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, skills, and practices of their own culture.

Attributions

the explanations individuals make for behavior and events, which are shaped by, and reinforce, the cultural norms, values, and expectations they internalize.

Etic vs. Emic

The etic perspective analyzes cultural phenomena from an outsider’s, cross-cultural viewpoint, while the emic perspective focuses on understanding culture from within, using the insider’s own concepts and categories.

Goals of Cultural Psychology

aims to understand how culture shapes human thought, emotion, and behavior and how psychological processes and cultural contexts are mutually influenced.

Hofstede values

Power Distance Index, Individualism vs. Collectivism, Uncertainty Avoidance Index, Masculinity vs. Femininity, Long Term vs. Short Term Orientation, Indulgence vs. Restraint

Socially Desirable Responding

(responses that make oneself look good; self-deceptive enhancement, impression management)

acquiescence bias

(tendency to agree to items rather than disagree)

Extreme response bias

(tendency to use ends of a scale)

reference group effect

(when comparing oneself to one’s own group we may see ourselves as less independent or less collectivistic)

Whiting & Whiting’s Six Cultures Study – general findings

children’s behavior and development vary significantly across cultures due to differences in child-rearing practices, family structure, and social expectations.

domain-specific approach to parenting

parenting practices are best understood in terms of specific behavioral domains rather than via broad classifications of parenting style.

differing levels of peer influence on enculturation (e.g., post-figurative, co-figurative, & prefigurative cultures)

Post-figurative: relies on elders as the main transmitters of knowledge, norms, and traditions, while peers have relatively minimal influence Co-Figurative: Younger people rely on both older and same-age peers for learning and guidance. Prefigurative: peers often supersede elders as the main influence in enculturation.

Developmental Contextualism

emphasizes the dynamic, reciprocal interactions between a developing individual and multiple contexts in which they live

Goodness of Fit

child development is optimized when there is congruence between the individual’s characteristics (temperament) and the surrounding environment.

Self concept

individual’s overall belief about who they are, including their traits, roles, abilities, and identity, answering the question “Who am I?”

Cultural Worldview

the collective set of beliefs, values, and assumptions through which a group interprets reality and their place in the world.

Independent construal of self

see themselves as autonomous, unique, and distinct from others

Interdependent construal of self

define themselves through their relationships, social roles, and group memberships, prioritizing harmony and fitting in with their social context

self esteem

your overall sense of personal worth and capability — how you judge yourself, how you talk to yourself, and how confident you feel in navigating life.

self-enhancement strategies

psychological tools people use to maintain or strengthen a positive self‑view, ranging from reframing experiences to building skills and seeking supportive environments.

Terror management theory

explains how awareness of our own mortality shapes human behavior by motivating people to defend their cultural worldviews and maintain self‑esteem.

self-effacement

deliberately keeping oneself inconspicuous or downplaying one’s importance, usually out of modesty, shyness, or a desire to avoid attention.

Better than average effect

cognitive bias where individuals consistently perceive themselves as superior to the average person in abilities, traits, or moral qualities.

types of identities

Personal: unique, individual sense of self- "Who am I?" Collective: shared sense of belonging among a group, combining personal and social elements Relational: how you see yourself in relation to others Cultural: values, beliefs, customs, and behaviors learned from your cultural background Ethnic: ancestry, heritage, and cultural traditions within a specific ethnic group Racial: perceived or self-identified racial grouping, often shaped by societal categories

identity denial

rejecting or distancing yourself from a part of who you are—such as your background, traits, or experiences—often as a way to cope with conflict, stigma, or internal discomfort.

multicultural identities

describes how individuals integrate and move between multiple cultural influences—such as ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, or family heritage—into a coherent sense of who they are

cultural frame switching

occurs when individuals with exposure to two or more cultures activate one culture’s knowledge structures, or “cultural frames,” depending on contextual cues such as language, symbols, or social settings

cultural reaffirmation effect

When individuals move to a new country or interact with multiple cultures, they often cling more strongly to the traditional values and customs of their original culture than people who remain in the homeland. This occurs because immigrants seek to maintain their cultural identity in a foreign environment

mutual self enhancement

reciprocal process of giving and receiving positive affirmations, compliments, or praise between individuals in close relationships, which boosts each person’s self‑esteem and strengthens relational bonds

tactical self enhancement

Individuals aim to maintain or boost their self-esteem, but the way they do so can vary depending on social norms, cultural expectations, and situational pressures.

Absolutist position

assumes psychological phenomenon basically same in all cultures (culture plays little role)

Relativist position

assumes all human behavior is culturally patterned (comparisons are problematic and ethnocentric)

Universalist position

assumes that there is a dynamic interaction between humans and their environment

Edward T. Hall

American anthropologist, early researcher in intercultural communication - came up with the terms "high context" and "low context"

Research Goals in Cross-Cultural Research

1. test existing psychological concepts 2. explore role of culture in shaping behavior

Values omitted

cultures evolve, and some of the following values have become more prevalent in the U.S

moral

justice, fairness, others' welfare

social-conventional

contextually determined norms

prudential

comfort, safety, harm to self

Piaget's Four Stages of Development

Sensorimotor (birth to 2 yrs) Preoperational (2 to 7 years) Concrete operations (7-11 yrs) Formal operations (11 yrs through adult)

gross motor activity

squirming, moving, arms/legs

Sociability

smiling/laughter

behavioral inhibition

wariness, discomfort, or distress in novel/challenging/unfamiliar situations

Distress to limitation

level of distress when infant goal is blocked

Soothability

how easy it is to soothe infant when distressed

Duration of orienting

how long infant pays attention to an object when no other stimulations are introduced

Cultural models of attachment

Psychological autonomy- bonded with 1-2 caregivers, infants seen as autonomous and unique Hierarchical relatedness- infants bonded within a community that extends beyond immediate family Hybrid - social community plus individual relationships

What is the self?

-dynamic and multifaceted -changes depending on context and over time -relational

ADDRESSING

Age, Development, Disabilities, Religion, Ethnic/racial identity, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, indigenous heritage, national origin, gender

Triandis

there are three types of selves that coexist in all people across cultures - the private, the public, the collective

What does research show regarding self enhancement?

- people of all cultures self-enhance but do so in different ways -Japanese students did not show the better-than-average effect, instead responding that they thought about 50% of other students would be better than them in abilities or traits

slow-to-warm-up

a temperament describing a child who needs time to make transitions in activity and experiences, and may withdraw initially or respond negatively, yet when given time and support they will adapt and react positively

Developmental niche

a framework for understanding how culture shapes child development through the physical and social setting, customs of child care and child rearing in their society, and the psychology of their caregivers