What was Russia like in the early 20th century?

- Vast - The Russian Empire covered 1/6 of the world's surface - Ruled by Tsar Nicholas II of the Romanov dynasty - Had a population of 125 million people - Faced a number of political, economic, social, religious and geographical problems which led to discontent and growing opposition which threatened the tsarist regime

Reasons for discontent: Subject Nationalities

- Russian empire was made up of more than 20 different peoples: Russia was a foreign language for 60% of these people who were known as subject nationalities - Many of these people resented being part of the Russian Empire due to the policy of 'Russification' whereby they were forced to speak Russian, wear Russian clothes and follow Russian customs - Russians were also often given the important jobs in non-Russian areas

Reasons for discontent: the government

- Russia was an autocracy. All power lay in the hands of the tsar who believed he ruled by divine right. - About 70% of the population were members of the Orthodox Church which was closely linked to the tsar and supported his way of ruling. They taught that he was God's chosen representative on earth. - The tsar's council of ministers ran various governmental departments, but could not make important decisions - civil servants carried out the day-to-day work of government, but were poorly paid. Bribery and corruption were rife. - Russian people had little freedom: trade unions and strikes were forbidden, newspapers and books were censored. - The tsar was determined to suppress all opposition using the Okhrana, his secret police.

Reasons for discontent: Tsar Nicholas II

- Nicholas II (tsar from 1894) was a weak and reluctant ruler - He insisted on governing as an autocrat and believed that divine right meant no one had the right to challenge him or his wife, the Tsarina Alexandra. - He was ignorant of the nature and extent of opposition to tsarist rule and refused to share power.

Reasons for discontent: economic problems

- 85% of the population lived in the countryside, however Russian agriculture was poor. - Extensive tundra, forest and desert meant that only about 5% of the land was used for farming. - In most villages, land was divided into three large fields with each household owning strips in these. This scattered strip farming system encouraged subsistence farming using primitive hand tools. These old-fashioned methods resulted in low food production and frequent famines e.g. 1892

Reasons for discontent: Industrial development

- Russia only industrialised in the late 19th century. - Manufacturing output was still very low at the beginning of the 20th century. Its size and undeveloped system of roads and railway, together with the absence of an effective banking system, all restricted the growth of industry. - Sergei Witte, Minister of Finance 1893-1903 set himself the huge task of modernising the Russian economy, inviting foreign experts and workers to advise on industrial planning. These did stimulate industrial growth, but led to poor living and working conditions in industrial cities.

What were Russia's social problems?

- Russian society was divided into different classes. - The vast majority were poor peasants, whilst at the other end of the scale, were the tsar, the aristocracy and the higher clergy.

Russian society: The aristocracy

- Made up just over 1% of the population yet owned c25% of the land. - Some were extremely rich, with lavish homes in the countryside, a second home in a town or city, and many servants.

Russian society: The middle class

- By 1914, Russia had a growing middle class who had emerged amid industrialisation. - Members of this class included bankers, merchants and factory owners. - This class often made their fortune from government contracts and loans and had a very pleasant lifestyle, eating out as expensive restaurants and visiting the theatre or ballet.

Russian Society: The peasants

- The largest and poorest group. - Life was very hard for most - they lived in poor conditions and survived on a staple diet of rye bread, porridge and cabbage soup. - Poor harvests frequently led to starvation and disease. - Life expectancy was less than 40 years old: many died of typhus and diphtheria.

Russian society: the town workers

- The most rapidly increasing group were the new industrial workers in the towns and cities. - Living conditions were terrible: workers lived in overcrowded slums and ate cheap black bread, cabbage soup and wheat porridge. - They earned low wages, working long hours and were forbidden from forming trade unions to fight for better conditions. Protests or strikes were crushed with great brutality by the police or army.

What happened on Bloody Sunday?

- On 22nd January 1905, Father Gapon led a peaceful march of c. 200,000 people to the Tsar's Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, petitioning for better working conditions. - The Tsar was not in his palace and the soldiers panicked, firing on the crowd and killing hundreds.

What were the consequences of Bloody Sunday?

- Bloody Sunday sparked revolution in February 1905. - There were strikes and a mutiny in the navy. - Although revolution should also be seen in the context of the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese war, the revolution clearly showed the depth of Nicholas' unpopularity. - Nicholas was forced to issue the October Manifesto in order to end the chaos. This promised freedom of speech, an end to censorship and a national parliament (duma).

What was Stolypin's necktie?

- Peter Stolypin was appointed prime minister after the 1905 revolution. - He introduced certain reforms, esp. agriculture and education. - However, he dealt with opponents of the tsar harshly - more than 3,000 people were executed during his time as prime minister and the gallows became known as 'Stolypin's necktie'.

What were the limitations of the duma?

- Nicholas ensured that the duma he had been forced to create had little power. - After the first election in 1906, Nicholas declared he had the power to dissolve it and also change the rules by which it was elected. - There were four different dumas between 1906-14. Nicholas' failure to learn from the 1905 revolution stimulated further opposition to his rule.

Who was Rasputin and why was he hired by the palace?

- Grigori Rasputin was a Siberian mystic and holy man who was hired by the palace in 1907 to control the Tsarevich (Alexei)'s haemophilia. - Nicholas and Alexandra referred to him as 'Our Friend' and his position and power at court quickly grew. He eventually helped to choose government ministers. - Stories about his hedonistic lifestyle abounded e.g. rumours of orgies at the palace - Rasputin furthered opposition against the tsar as it added growing corruption and incompetence to the list of problems Russia faced.

Which political groups threatened the tsarist regime? The SDP

- The Social Democratic Party was founded in 1901 - They followed the teachings of Karl Marx and believed that the proletariat would one day stage a revolution and remove the tsar, before setting up a communist state. - The party split in 1903 into the Mensheviks (minority) and Bolsheviks (majority). - The Mensheviks believed that the party should have a mass membership and were prepared for slow change, whilst the Bolsheviks believed a small party elite should lead the revolution. - Lenin was leader of the Bolsheviks - Trotsky and Martov led the Mensheviks

Which political groups threatened the tsarist regime? SRs

- The Socialist Revolutionaries were founded in 1901. - They believed in a revolution of the peasants and aimed to get rid of the tsar. - They wanted to distribute land between the peasants and have them farm it in small peasant communities. - Party members held a range of views, from constitutional methods to the use of terror to achieve aims. - Alexander Kerensky (later prime minister under the Provisional Government) led the SRs.

Which political groups threatened the tsarist regime? The Octobrists

- The Octobrists were founded in 1905 following the issuing of the October Manifesto - They believed that tsar would carry out his promises of limited reforms. - The majority of their support came from the middle classes. - They were led by Alexander Guchkov

In what circumstances did Russia enter the First World War?

- Russia entered the First World War with great expectations of success. - Many believed that the sheer size/manpower of the Russian army would be too strong for both Germany and Austria-Hungary. - She was known as the 'Russian steamroller' - However, by the end of 1914, Russia had over 1m casualties and by 1916 had suffered a series of devastating defeats which increased discontent against the tsar and his government.

Why did Russia suffer so many defeats during WW1? Poor leadership

- Russian generals were often lazy, incompetent and over confident. This was seen in 1914 when they moved their armies too quickly into East Prussia, confident of victory and went far beyond their support and supplies. - They also used outdated tactics, believing the cavalry would still be decisive - they rode with sabres and lances which were no match for the German machine gunners. - There was also poor communication between generals. They sent wireless messages to each other, but these were intercepted by the Germans and gave away their positions.

Why did Russia suffer so many defeats during WW1? Lack of infrastructure

- Russia's outdated telegraph system meant that military orders got lost - Poor roads and an inadequate railway system meant that supplies couldn't reach the front line. - There were also not enough steelworks, explosive factories, shipyards and medical supplies for the troops

Why did Russia suffer so many defeats during WW1? Supplies and equipment

- Industrially backward Russia could not produce enough supplies or equipment for troops. Soldiers often had no boots or winter coats or two or three men would share the same rifle - they were usually short of bullets and always needed more medical supplies.

Why did Russia suffer so many defeats during WW1? Leadership of the Tsar (from Sep 1915)

- The tsar had no military experience, was not capable and so made no tangible difference to the war effort. - He was also blamed for military defeats and this shattered the image peasants had of him as a wise and caring tsar.

What were the military effects of these defeats?

- Enthusiasm for the war soon waned as high casualties, frequent defeats and poor equipment lowered the morale of soldiers. They soon lost respect for their officers and desertion was common. - Many soldiers died without weapons or ammunition, and some did not even have boots to wear in the bitterly cold weather. - The discontent spread to the people of Russia and news of high casualties caused alarm in different parts of the Russian Empire e.g. in Baku, Azerbaijan, women lay on the rails to stop troops moving. In other places, there was violent resistance to conscription.

What were the economic and social effects of the war?

- War had a devastating effect on the Russian economy. Inflation increased, with seven price rises between 1913 and 1917. - The shortage of labour and horses meant that less food was produced and this problem only worsened as more men were called up to the front. 14m men enlisted between 1914 and 1917. - Industry was hit by the shortage of workers and by the lack of fuel and essential supplies. Russia's transport system could not cope with the increased demand of war and consumer goods e.g. boots and cloth became scarce and expensive. There were shortages of vital coal, iron and steel and many factories closed. - These problems in turn led to unemployment and even greater poverty. - By early 1917, Russia was close to defeat on the Eastern Front. There was mass discontent in the armed forces and amongst the Russian people. Worse still, Petrograd experienced the worst winter in living memory with temps falling below -30 degrees.

What were the political effects of the war?

- Initially, the war encouraged the tsar to work with the dumas, but ultimately it seriously weakened his position. - The tsar's decision to take over command of the war and move to the front was a serious mistake. - Nicholas left the country in the hands of the tsarina who refused to take advice from the duma. - Alexandra was German and it was rumoured that she was a German spy trying to sabotage the Russian war effort. - She increasingly relied on the advice of Rasputin and dismissed capable ministers on his advice for his incompetent friends. There were so many changes of minister that nobody was properly organising food, fuel or other supplies. The railway system fell into chaos and trainloads of food were left rotting. - As the situation on the Eastern front and at home became more desperate, support for the tsar and his wife began to decrease amongst the middle and upper classes.

How did Rasputin die?

- Rasputin was murdered by Prince Yusupov in December 1916. - Rasputin was invited to Yusupov's mansion where he ate cakes laced with cyanide. - He was then shot twice, had his hands bound and his body was thrown into an icy river where he drowned.

What was the situation in Petrograd in early 1917?

- Severe winter (-30) was affecting food supplies - Prices were rising - Rationing had led to further discontent - Strikes became an everyday occurrence and people began to demand food - Nicholas II's absence meant that he did not know exactly what was happening in Petrograd - In January 1917, General Krymov, a Russian army commander on the eastern front informed the president of the duma that many soldiers would support the duma if it took over.

How did events develop in February 1917?

Situation rapidly worsened. - 18th Feb: A strike at the Putilov engineering works begins - the workers are demanding higher wages in the context of inflation. - 23rd Feb: International Womens' Day sees large numbers of women join 100,000 strikers on the streets of Petrograd - they chant slogans such as 'Down with Hunger' - 24th Feb - c. 200,00 workers now on strike - 25th Feb - c. 300,000 workers on strike, with no newspapers printed or public transport. The police begin to show sympathy to the demonstrators - 26th Feb - Nicholas instructs the army to restore order, but some of the Petrograd Garrison desert. - 27th Feb - Buildings, restaurants and shops are looted - most of the Petrograd Garrison mutiny and join the strikers. Nicholas orders the duma to dissolve, but 12 members refuse and set up a 'Provisional Committee'. The first meeting of the Petrograd Soviet meets this day. - 28th Feb: The Petrograd Soviet issues a newspaper declaring its intention to remove the old government.

How did events develop in March 1917?

- 1st Mar: The Petrograd Soviet issues Soviet Order Number One, which transfers all authority from army officers to the elected representatives of the soldiers - 2nd Mar: Nicholas returns to Petrograd and is advised to abdicate. - 3rd Mar: The Provisional Committee renames itself the Provisional Government and becomes responsible for running the country NB. The abdication took place in a railway carriage 320km from Petrograd - it was unplanned and represented an unexpected end to 300 years of Romanov rule.

What was the Provisional Government?

- The Provisional Government was a temporary body set up to govern until elections for a Constituent Assembly could be held and a permanent government established. - The prime minister was Prince Lvov, a wealthy aristocratic land owner and other leading figures included Milyukov (Foreign Minister), Guchkov (War Minister) and Kerensky (Minister for Justice) - The Provisional Government was comprised of men from many political parties, but were mainly middle class politicians who wanted to draw up a constitution and establish a democratic government. - Initially the Bolsheviks supported it, with a view to seizing power from the middle classes in future.

What was the Petrograd Soviet?

- A huge, fluctuating mass meeting of two to three thousand workers, soldiers, and socialist intellectuals modelled on the revolutionary soviets of 1905. - It acted as a parallel government alongside the provisional government - It issued radical orders -> the provisional government's authority was weakened

What problems did the Provisional Government face?

- Not a truly elected body and did not represent the people (85% peasantry) - They continued the war and faced continued defeats, desertions etc. - Peasants were looting the property of landlords and seizing their land - Soldiers and workers were setting up soviets in towns and cities who looked to the Petrograd Soviet - Continued food shortages - Subject nationalities hoping for independence

What reforms did the Provisional Gov. introduce?

- Freedom of religion - Freedom of speech - Recognition of TUs - Introduction of an eight hour industrial work day - Promise of an elected parliament - Abolition of the secret police - Amnesty for political prisoners These all tackled problems not solved after the 1905 revolution and aimed to satisfy both the workers and middle classes.

Why did the Petrograd Soviet present such a problem?

- Existence of the Provisional Gov. and Petrograd Soviet meant that there were two bodies ruling Russia: The Dual Authority - Both bodies met in the same building and initially worked together, but a gulf grew between the two. - The Soviet increasingly came under the influence of the Bolsheviks, who attacked the Provisional Government for continuing the war - In March 1917, the Petrograd Soviet issued Soviet Order Number One which meant that the orders of the Provisional Government were only binding in regards to military affairs if they were approved by the Soviet.

Why did the Provisional Government continue the war?

- Because it was concerned at the heavy demands Germany would make if Russia made peace - Surprisingly, the Petrograd Soviet agreed and supported the government and the first meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets gave a vote of confidence to the Provisional Government in June 1917.

What was the June Offensive?

A major offensive attack in June 1917, headed by Kerensky, to inspire patriotism and gain control - it failed and resulted in more than 60,000 Russian deaths and yet more desertions

What were the July Days?

- Name given to three days (July 3-6 1917) where there was chaos in Petrograd as some Bolsheviks tried to overthrow the Provisional Government. - The riots and disorder only ended when Kerensky, the Minister for War, was able to move loyal troops to quash the rebels. - c. 400 people were killed or injured and Lenin fled the country.

In what circumstances did Kerensky become prime minister?

- Kerensky was appointed prime minister on 8th July 1917, cementing his position as the most powerful politician in Russia. - He was determined to continue the war and wait until the Constituent Assembly elections before making any decisions about Russia's participation in the conflict. - Increasingly, Russians felt that little had changed since the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II...

What was the Kornilov Affair?

- Attempted coup against the Provisional Government led by Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian armed forces, General Kornilov, in August 1917 - The German advance deep into Russia was threatening Petrograd and Kornilov decided that if Russia was to defeat the Germans, there had to be stability at home - Kornilov thought he was the man to restore order and ensure that there would be no anarchy or socialist style government in Russia. - He wanted to set up a military dictatorship

What happened during the Kornilov Affair?

- Kornilov decided to march on Petrograd to save the Provisional Government. - He issued a manifesto which attacked the Bolsheviks in the Petrograd Soviet, asked for the war to be continued and called for a meeting of the Constituent Assembly - He was condemned by Kerensky and Petrograd was placed under martial law. - As Kornilov approached Petrograd, Kerensky allowed the Bolshevik Red Guards to arm and this helped to persuade some of Kornilov's supporters to desert. Kerensky also set free many Bolsheviks who had been imprisoned after the July Days - The revolt failed when workers prevented Kornilov's troops from approaching Petrograd and printers stopped publication of newspaper which supported the revolt. - Kornilov was arrested.

Why was the Kornilov Affair significant?

- It meant that the Army High Command had lost its commander-in-chief and morale sank even lower. Officers continued to be murdered and desertions rose even higher. - It made Kerensky's government look weak, whilst strengthening the Bolsheviks as they had been seen to save Petrograd. - It armed and freed many of those who had previously been imprisoned. - It encouraged Lenin to return from exile.

In what circumstances did Lenin return to Russia?

- The February Revolution meant that Lenin was desperate to return to Russia and put forward the message that the Bolsheviks wanted peace and an end to chaos in Russia. - Germany funded Lenin's return from exile in Switzerland in the hope he would overthrow the Provisional Government and pull Russia from the First World War. - They placed him in a sealed train and sent him across Germany and Sweden. - He arrived in Petrograd at the Finland Station on 3 April 1917. - Some accused him of being a German spy, in the pay of the enemy.

What were the April Theses?

- Lenin's plans for a workers' revolution which were set out the day after his return. They stated i) The war with Germany had to end ii) Power had to pass from the middle classes to the working classes iii) All land had to be given to the peasants iv) The police, army and bureaucracy should be abolished v) The capitalist system had to be overthrown by the workers and then nationalised vi) The Bolsheviks should take control of the Soviets in order to achieve their aims

How did Bolshevik membership grow?

- 24,000 in Feb - 100,000 in April - 40 newspaper spreading Lenin's views across Russia and 10,000 armed workers in Petrograd alone by June - 340,000 in October and 60,000 members in Petrograd alone

What was the impact of the July Days?

- Caused Lenin to flee the country again - Led to the arrest and imprisonment of many leading Bolsheviks - Saw Pravda, their newspaper, close down. - Lenin, however, continued to direct Bolshevik operations from Finland and the event encouraged him to alter his views and state that he now believed peasants would play a significant role in any future revolution: it was at this point he took up the slogan 'land to the peasants'

What was the impact of the Kornilov Affair?

- Helped increase Bolshevik popularity - Allowed Bolsheviks to claim they were the true defenders of Petrograd - Saw the Red Guard retain the weapons given to them by Kerensky during the revolt

What led to the Bolsheviks seizing power?

- The Bolsheviks wanted to seize power before the All-Russian Congress of Soviets met in early October as Lenin was worried that Bolsheviks would not have a majority of representatives in it. - Lenin also knew that the Bolsheviks were unlikely to win a majority of seats in the Constituent Assembly elections called by Kerensky. - He believed they needed to seize power before these dates. - Lenin called for a revolution from Finland, but returned to Russia on 7 October and went into hiding. - On 10 October, he persuaded the Bolshevik Central Committee to agree to an uprising. - On 23 October, Kerensky closed down the two Bolshevik newspapers (Pravda and Izvestiya) and attempted to round up leading Bolsheviks. - This forced Lenin into action and he ordered the revolution to begin.

What were the key events of the revolution?

- 24th October: The Bolsheviks captured key buildings e.g. telegraph offices and railway stations and set up road blocks on the city's bridges/roads surrounding the Winter Palace where the Provisional Gov sat. - There was little resistance - 25th October: Kerensky escaped from Petrograd and tried to raise troops from the front, whilst the rest of the gov. remained in the Winter Palace, but was not successful in this. - The Troops guarding the Provisional Gov surrendered. - The Provisional Gov. soon gave in and was placed under arrest.

Formation of Sovnarkom

- The following day, Lenin formed a government called the Council of People's Commissars, which had an all Bolshevik membership. - Lenin was head of the government - Leon Trotsky was Commissar of Foreign Affairs - Joseph Stalin was made Commissar for Nationalities When the All-Russian Congress of Soviets assembled at the Smolny Institute, the Bolsheviks held the most seats - 390/650. The SR and Menshevik representatives left the Congress on account of the illegal Bolshevik takeover, but this simply strengthened the Bolshevik majority.

How do historians differ on the October Revolution?

- Soviet Historians: typically emphasise the idea that the takeover was a popular uprising led and carried out by the working class and supported by poorer peasants. - Western/other Historians: typically emphasise that it was a takeover by a small minority - evidenced by the fact that in the Nov. elections for the Constituent Assembly, the Bolsheviks secured less than a quarter of the vote. Moreover, Bolshevik membership stood at 340,000 out of 125 million people.

Why was the Bolshevik takeover successful? The role of Trotsky

- Trotsky was a Menshevik exile who returned to Russia in May 1917. He only became a Bolshevik in July. - Trotsky was appointed leader of the Petrograd Soviet in August 1917. - In October, he became the dominant member of the three-man Military Revolutionary Committee which theoretically controlled 20,000 Red Guards, 60,000 Baltic sailors and the 150,000 soldiers of the Petrograd Garrison. This position was a useful smokescreen for his preparation for revolution. - He increasingly relied on small, disciplined units of soldiers and workers who would be more effective. - Trotsky planned the seizure of the key buildings of the Provisional Government and their overthrow on 24th October

Why was the Bolshevik takeover successful? The role of Lenin

- Lenin was crucial to the success of the revolution - He persuaded the Bolsheviks to oppose the war, unlike the Mensheviks or Socialist Revolutionaries and this proved a key reason for growing support in 1917 - He gave the Bolsheviks simple slogans which could be easily understood by ordinary people and gained their support e.g. 'Peace, Land and Bread' and 'All power to the soviets' - His tremendous energy, vitality and commitment to revolution spurred the Bolsheviks on - He created the Red Guard, which was funded by German money - He persuaded the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party to seize power in October

Why was the Bolshevik takeover successful? The weakness of the provisional government

- The provisional gov was weak and temporary - It was unelected - It failed to introduce necessary reforms and failed to win over ordinary people - It continued the war - It delayed elections for the Constituent Assembly - It shared power with the Petrograd Soviet and could not overturn Soviet Order Number One - The Provisional Gov armed the Bolsheviks after the Kornilov Affair - These reasons meant that it received little/no help when the Bolsheviks seized power