Chapter 1 - Study Guide
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| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Chapter 1 - Study Guide | |
| • | Definitions |
| Anatomy – The study of structure and the relationships among structures | |
| Physiology – The study of how body structure’s function | |
| • | Subspecialities Of Physiology |
| Neurophysiology – nerve cells | |
| Endocrinology – hormones | |
| Cardiovascular Physiology – heart and blood vessels | |
| Immunology – body’s defense against disease – causing agents | |
| Respiratory Physiology – air passageways and lungs | |
| Renal Physiology – kidneys | |
| Pathophysiology – disease and aging | |
| • | Levels of Structural Organization & Body Systems |
| 1. | Chemical level ( Atoms/ Molecule) |
| 2. | Cellular level ( Smooth muscle cell) |
| 3. | Tissue level ( Smooth muscle tissue) |
| 4. | Organ level ( Epithelial and connective tissues, Smooth muscle tissue layers, Epithelial tissue/Stomach |
| 5. | System level ( Mouth, Salivary glands, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas, Large intestine, Small intestine, Digestive system) |
| 6. | Organismal level |
| Chemical levels- includes atoms, the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions, and molecules, two or more atoms joined together | |
| Cells- the basic structural and functional units of an organism | |
| Tissues- groups of similarly specialized cells and the substances surrounding them that usually arise from a common ancestor and perform certain special functions | |
| Organs- structures of definite form that are composed of two or more different tissues and have specific functions | |
| Systems- related organs that have a common function | |
| Organismal- the human organism is a collection of structurally and functionally integrated systems; any living individual | |
| The eleven systems of the human body are the integumentary (skin), skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine (hormones), cardiovascular, lymphatic (fluid), respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive | |
| Integumentary system – skin, hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands, oil glands | |
| ( Protects body, regulate body temperature, eliminates wastes) | |
| Skeletal system – bones, joints, cartilages | |
| ( Supports and protects body, provides surface area for muscle attachments, aids body movement) | |
| Muscular system – skeletal muscle tissue, other muscle tissues include smooth and cardiac | |
| ( Participates in body movements, such as walking, maintains posture, produces heat) | |
| Nervous system – brain, spinal cord, nerves, eyes, ears | |
| ( Generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities, detects changes in in body’s internal and external environment) | |
| Endocrine system – thymus, thyroid gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes | |
| (Regulates body activities by releasing hormones chemical messengers transported in blood from endocrine gland or tissue to target organ) | |
| Cardiovascular system – blood, heart, blood vessels | |
| ( Heart pumps blood through blood vessels, blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells) | |
| Lymphatic system – lymphatic fluid, vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, B cells , T cells | |
| ( Return proteins and fluid to blood, contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells and T cells that protect against disease- causing microbes) | |
| Respiratory system – lungs, pharynx, larynx, traches, bronchial tubes | |
| ( Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air) | |
| Digestive system – mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine | |
| ( Physical and chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates solid wastes) | |
| Urinary system – kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra | |
| ( Produces, stores, and eliminates urine, eliminates wastes) | |
| Reproductive system – testes, ovaries, uterus, vagina | |
| ( Gonads produces gametes that unite to form a new organism, release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes) | |
| • | Basic Life Processes |
| All living things have certain characteristics that distinguish them from nonliving things | |
| The six most important life processes in humans include metabolism (chemical reactions), responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction | |
| Metabolism- all chemical processes that occur in the body, including catabolism and anabolism | |
| Responsiveness- the ability to detect and respond to changes in the external or internal environment | |
| Movement- motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, or even organelles inside cells | |
| Growth- an increase in size and complexity, due to an increase in the number of cells, size of cells, or both | |
| Differentiation- the change in a cell from an unspecialized state to a specialized state | |
| Reproduction- the formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual | |
| • | Homeostasis |
| Homeostasis – a condition of equilibrium, or balance, in the body’s internal environment | |
| The survival of our body cells in dependent on the precise regulation of the chemical composition of their surrounding fluid | |
| This fluid is known as extracellular fluid | |
| Fluid inside body cells is called intracellular fluid | |
| Fluid outside body cells is called extracellular fluid and is found in two principal places | |
| Homeostatic imbalances occur because of disruptions from the external or internal environments | |
| Homeostatic is regulated by the nervous system and endocrine system, acting together or independently | |
| A feedback system is a cycle of events in which information about the status of a condition is continually monitored and feedback (reported) to a central control region | |
| Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a stimulus | |
| A receptor monitor changes in a controlled condition and sends input, in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals, to a control center | |
| The control center sets the range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates the input it receives from the receptors, and generates output commands when they are needed | |
| An effector is a body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition | |
| If a response reverses the original stimulus, the system is a negative feedback system | |
| If a response enhances the original stimulus, the system is a positive feedback system | |
| Homeostasis of Blood Pressure (BP): Negative Feedback | |
| If a stimulus (stress) causes blood pressure (controlled condition) to rise, pressure-sensitive cells (baroreceptors) in certain arteries send impulses (input) to the brain (control center) | |
| The brain sends impulses (output) to the heart (effector), causing the heart rate to decrease (response) and return of blood pressure to normal (restoration of homeostasis) | |
| Normal childbirth provides a good example of a positive feedback system | |
| When labor begins, the uterus is stretched (stimulus) and stretch-sensitive nerve cells in the cervix of the uterus (receptors) send impulses (input) to the hypothalamus (control center) | |
| The hypothalamus causes the release of oxytocin (output) which stimulates the uterus (effector) to contract more forcefully (response) | |
| When homeostasis is disrupted disease, disorder, and even death may result | |
| • | Body Positions |
| Anatomical position is a standardized method of observing or imaging the body that allows precise and consistent anatomical reference | |
| Person stands erect, facing the observer, the upper extremities are placed at the sides, the palms of the hands are turned forward, and the feet are flat on the floor | |
| Reclining Position | |
| If the body is lying face down, it is in the prone position | |
| If the body is lying face up, it is in the suping position | |
| • | Regional Names |
| Regional names are names given to specific regions of the body for reference | |
| Head (Cephalic) | |
| Neck (Cervical) | |
| Truck | |
| Upper limbs | |
| Lower limbs | |
| • | Directional Terms |
| Directional terms are used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another | |
| Superior – Toward the head, or the upper part of a structure | |
| Inferior - Away from the head, or the lower part of a structure | |
| Anterior – Front of the body | |
| Posterior – Back of the body | |
| Medial – Near the midline that divides the body into equal right and left sides | |
| Lateral – Farther from the midline | |
| Proximal – Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the truck | |
| Distal – Farther from the attachment of a limb to the truck | |
| Superficial – Toward or on the surface of the body | |
| Deep- Away from the surface of the body | |
| • | Body Planes |
| Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body | |
| Transverse plane - Top and Bottom | |
| Sagittal Plane – Left and right | |
| Frontal plane – Front and back | |
| Oblique plane – at an angle | |
| • | Body Cavities |
| Body cavities are spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs | |
| The cranial cavity is formed by the cranial bones and contains the brain | |
| The vertebral (spinal) canal is formed by the bones of the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord | |
| Three layers of protective tissue, called meninges, line these cavities | |
| The truck is subdivided by the diaphragm into an upper thoracic cavity and a lower abdominopelvic cavity | |
| The thoracic cavity contains two pleural cavities and the mediastinum, which includes the pericardial cavity | |
| The pleural cavities enclose the lungs, while the pericardial cavity surrounds the heart | |
| The abdominopelvic cavity is divided into a superior abdominal and an inferior pelvic cavity | |
| • | Visceral/ Parietal Membranes |
| Viscera of the abdominal cavity include the stomach, spleen, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine | |
| Viscera of the pelvic cavity include the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine and internal female and the male reproductive structures | |
| The serious membranes include the pleura and pericardium | |
| The pericardium and pleura covers the heart and lungs | |
| The pleural membrane surrounds the lungs, with the visceral pleura clinging to the surface of the lungs and the parietal pleura lining the chest wall | |
| The peritoneum covers many of the abdominal organs | |
| The visceral membrane covers the organs | |
| The parietal layer lines the abdominal wall |