Chapter 1 - Study Guide

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Definitions

Anatomy – The study of structure and the relationships among structures

Physiology – The study of how body structure’s function

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Subspecialities Of Physiology

Neurophysiology – nerve cells

Endocrinology – hormones

Cardiovascular Physiology – heart and blood vessels

Immunology – body’s defense against disease – causing agents

Respiratory Physiology – air passageways and lungs

Renal Physiology – kidneys

Pathophysiology – disease and aging

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Levels of Structural Organization & Body Systems

1.

Chemical level ( Atoms/ Molecule)

2.

Cellular level ( Smooth muscle cell)

3.

Tissue level ( Smooth muscle tissue)

4.

Organ level ( Epithelial and connective tissues, Smooth muscle tissue layers, Epithelial tissue/Stomach

5.

System level ( Mouth, Salivary glands, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas, Large intestine, Small intestine, Digestive system)

6.

Organismal level

Chemical levels- includes atoms, the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions, and molecules, two or more atoms joined together

Cells- the basic structural and functional units of an organism

Tissues- groups of similarly specialized cells and the substances surrounding them that usually arise from a common ancestor and perform certain special functions

Organs- structures of definite form that are composed of two or more different tissues and have specific functions

Systems- related organs that have a common function

Organismal- the human organism is a collection of structurally and functionally integrated systems; any living individual

The eleven systems of the human body are the integumentary (skin), skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine (hormones), cardiovascular, lymphatic (fluid), respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive

Integumentary system – skin, hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands, oil glands

( Protects body, regulate body temperature, eliminates wastes)

Skeletal system – bones, joints, cartilages

( Supports and protects body, provides surface area for muscle attachments, aids body movement)

Muscular system – skeletal muscle tissue, other muscle tissues include smooth and cardiac

( Participates in body movements, such as walking, maintains posture, produces heat)

Nervous system – brain, spinal cord, nerves, eyes, ears

( Generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities, detects changes in in body’s internal and external environment)

Endocrine system – thymus, thyroid gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes

(Regulates body activities by releasing hormones chemical messengers transported in blood from endocrine gland or tissue to target organ)

Cardiovascular system – blood, heart, blood vessels

( Heart pumps blood through blood vessels, blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells)

Lymphatic system – lymphatic fluid, vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, B cells , T cells

( Return proteins and fluid to blood, contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells and T cells that protect against disease- causing microbes)

Respiratory system – lungs, pharynx, larynx, traches, bronchial tubes

( Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air)

Digestive system – mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

( Physical and chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates solid wastes)

Urinary system – kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

( Produces, stores, and eliminates urine, eliminates wastes)

Reproductive system – testes, ovaries, uterus, vagina

( Gonads produces gametes that unite to form a new organism, release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes)

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Basic Life Processes

All living things have certain characteristics that distinguish them from nonliving things

The six most important life processes in humans include metabolism (chemical reactions), responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction

Metabolism- all chemical processes that occur in the body, including catabolism and anabolism

Responsiveness- the ability to detect and respond to changes in the external or internal environment

Movement- motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, or even organelles inside cells

Growth- an increase in size and complexity, due to an increase in the number of cells, size of cells, or both

Differentiation- the change in a cell from an unspecialized state to a specialized state

Reproduction- the formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual

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Homeostasis

Homeostasis – a condition of equilibrium, or balance, in the body’s internal environment

The survival of our body cells in dependent on the precise regulation of the chemical composition of their surrounding fluid

This fluid is known as extracellular fluid

Fluid inside body cells is called intracellular fluid

Fluid outside body cells is called extracellular fluid and is found in two principal places

Homeostatic imbalances occur because of disruptions from the external or internal environments

Homeostatic is regulated by the nervous system and endocrine system, acting together or independently

A feedback system is a cycle of events in which information about the status of a condition is continually monitored and feedback (reported) to a central control region

Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a stimulus

A receptor monitor changes in a controlled condition and sends input, in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals, to a control center

The control center sets the range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates the input it receives from the receptors, and generates output commands when they are needed

An effector is a body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition

If a response reverses the original stimulus, the system is a negative feedback system

If a response enhances the original stimulus, the system is a positive feedback system

Homeostasis of Blood Pressure (BP): Negative Feedback

If a stimulus (stress) causes blood pressure (controlled condition) to rise, pressure-sensitive cells (baroreceptors) in certain arteries send impulses (input) to the brain (control center)

The brain sends impulses (output) to the heart (effector), causing the heart rate to decrease (response) and return of blood pressure to normal (restoration of homeostasis)

Normal childbirth provides a good example of a positive feedback system

When labor begins, the uterus is stretched (stimulus) and stretch-sensitive nerve cells in the cervix of the uterus (receptors) send impulses (input) to the hypothalamus (control center)

The hypothalamus causes the release of oxytocin (output) which stimulates the uterus (effector) to contract more forcefully (response)

When homeostasis is disrupted disease, disorder, and even death may result

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Body Positions

Anatomical position is a standardized method of observing or imaging the body that allows precise and consistent anatomical reference

Person stands erect, facing the observer, the upper extremities are placed at the sides, the palms of the hands are turned forward, and the feet are flat on the floor

Reclining Position

If the body is lying face down, it is in the prone position

If the body is lying face up, it is in the suping position

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Regional Names

Regional names are names given to specific regions of the body for reference

Head (Cephalic)

Neck (Cervical)

Truck

Upper limbs

Lower limbs

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Directional Terms

Directional terms are used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another

Superior – Toward the head, or the upper part of a structure

Inferior - Away from the head, or the lower part of a structure

Anterior – Front of the body

Posterior – Back of the body

Medial – Near the midline that divides the body into equal right and left sides

Lateral – Farther from the midline

Proximal – Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the truck

Distal – Farther from the attachment of a limb to the truck

Superficial – Toward or on the surface of the body

Deep- Away from the surface of the body

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Body Planes

Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body

Transverse plane - Top and Bottom

Sagittal Plane – Left and right

Frontal plane – Front and back

Oblique plane – at an angle

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Body Cavities

Body cavities are spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs

The cranial cavity is formed by the cranial bones and contains the brain

The vertebral (spinal) canal is formed by the bones of the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord

Three layers of protective tissue, called meninges, line these cavities

The truck is subdivided by the diaphragm into an upper thoracic cavity and a lower abdominopelvic cavity

The thoracic cavity contains two pleural cavities and the mediastinum, which includes the pericardial cavity

The pleural cavities enclose the lungs, while the pericardial cavity surrounds the heart

The abdominopelvic cavity is divided into a superior abdominal and an inferior pelvic cavity

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Visceral/ Parietal Membranes

Viscera of the abdominal cavity include the stomach, spleen, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine

Viscera of the pelvic cavity include the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine and internal female and the male reproductive structures

The serious membranes include the pleura and pericardium

The pericardium and pleura covers the heart and lungs

The pleural membrane surrounds the lungs, with the visceral pleura clinging to the surface of the lungs and the parietal pleura lining the chest wall

The peritoneum covers many of the abdominal organs

The visceral membrane covers the organs

The parietal layer lines the abdominal wall