Saint Augustine, Florida
The first permanent European settlement in the Americas. Marked the beginning of European colonization in the Americas.
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| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Saint Augustine, Florida | The first permanent European settlement in the Americas. Marked the beginning of European colonization in the Americas. |
| cristianos nuevos | A term to describe Jewish and Muslim converts to Christianity. Reinforced the idea of religious and racial hierarchies and how they shaped the colonies. |
| “inventing Indians” | A term to describe the process of categorizing indigenous peoples to justify European colonization. Reflects how labels were used to control indigenous peoples. |
| régimen de castas | A Spanish racial classification system based on ancestry. Used to institutionalize racial inequality in the Spanish colonies. |
| gente sin razón | Meaning “people without reason,” used to describe indigenous peoples. Reveals how colonizers viewed indigenous people as inferior to justify exploitation. |
| genízaro | A term used to describe detribalized indigenous people who were integrated into Spanish society. Reflects how the Spanish wanted to assimilate the indigenous peoples. |
| Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo | The treaty that ended the Mexican-American War. Resulted in the transfer of Mexican territory to the U.S., as well as a large minority Mexican population that shaped the basis for Mexican-Americans. |
| “Mexican Miracle” | Period of rapid economic growth and modernization in Mexico in the 1940s-1970s. Resulted in a modernized, but deeply unequal Mexico that had social unrest. |
| Porfirio Diaz | The dictator of Mexico from the 1870s-1910s. His rule was characterized by economic growth and major social inequality and repression, resulting in the Mexican Revolution of 1910. |
| Mexican Revolution of 1910 | Mexican revolutionaries overthrew Porfirio Diaz’s dictatorship. Transformed Mexico’s political system, reformed land ownership, and inspired Latin American revolutionary movements. |
| Ozawa v. United States | Ozawa was a Japanese immigrant, and this court case classified the Japanese as non white. This reinforced racial barriers to citizenship in America, which would also affect the Latino population. |
| “El Plan Espiritual de Aztlán” | A manifesto calling for Chicano self-determination and cultural pride in 1969, Denver, Colorado. Became the founding document for the Chicano Movement. |
| “I am Joaquin.” | A poem written by Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales, which expresses the struggles of the Chicano identity. Symbolized the Chicano consciousness during the Civil Rights era. |
| Potosí | A large silver mining city in Bolivia during the 16th-18th centuries. Reflected how the Spanish Empire’s wealth was built on the exploitation of indigenous laborers. |
| Tenochtitlán | The capital city of the Aztec Empire in present-day Mexico City. The conquest of this city by the Spanish symbolized the end of indigenous independence and the start of the Spanish Empire. |
| encomienda | A term to describe the labor system used by the Spanish in the Americas. Reflects the systems of forced labor and racial hierarchy in the Spanish colonies. |
| sugar plantations | Large agricultural farms in the Caribbean and Brazil. Resulted in the Atlantic slave trade, wealth for Europe, and entrenched ideas of forced labor and racial inequality. |
| gente de pueblo | A term meaning “people of the town,” used to describe indigenous and mixed-race commoners. Reflects ideas of social hierarchy tied to race in the Spanish colonies. |
| gente decente | A term meaning “decent people,” used to describe Spanish-descended and wealthy mixed-race people. Reinforced the ideas of class and racial hierarchies being tied to ancestry and wealth. |
| mita labor system | A forced labor draft adopted from the Inca by the Spanish colonizers. Used to exploit indigenous labor and resulted in the depopulation and cultural decline of the exploited. |
| racial scripts | The idea that racial meanings and stereotypes are shared and reused across groups. Developed in the 20th century to explain how racism toward one group shapes the treatment of others, explaining how Latinos can relate to the indigenous. |
| Immigration Act of 1924 | A law passed by Congress that set strict quotas on immigration. Reflects institutionalized racial discrimination in America that favored Europeans over Asians and Latinos. |
| eugenics | A movement that promoted selective breeding to improve the human race. Reflects how immigration policies and racism harmed minority communities. |
| nativism | A political movement in the U.S. that favored native-born Americans over foreigners. It drove anti-immigration laws and racism toward Latinos and Asians. |
| nonwhite | Classification for people not considered to be white. Used to classify and segregate people and had ties to citizenship, labor, wealth, and identity. |
| Cuban Revolution 1959 | Led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara. Overthrew the U.S.-backed dictatorship and resulted in a large Cuban population in America. |
| 1790 Naturalization Act | The first law to define eligibility for U.S. citizenship. Limited naturalization to free white persons and established racial barriers to citizenship and immigration. |
| Bracero Program | A labor program that allowed Mexican men to legally work in the U.S. But resulted in their exploitation influencing future policy on labor and immigration. |
| “Order and Progress” | Motto used in Latin American politics to promote modernization and stability. Used by Porfirio’s regime to justify his authoritarian rule. |
| Dred Scott decision | Dred Scott was an enslaved man, and this case denied African Americans citizenship. Reinforced racial exclusion in the U.S. |
| “History Will Absolve Me” | Fidel Castro’s speech defending his 1953 Moncada Barracks attack. Marked the start of the Cuban Revolution and Castro’s resistance to imperialism. |
| “How to Tame a Wild Tongue” | An essay by Gloria Anzaldua exploring Chicana identity. Challenged notions of cultural assimilation and emphasized language in shaping Latino identity. |
| Tejanos | Mexican-descended residents of Texas. Represents the long presence of Mexicans in the U.S. and how they were affected by American expansion and racism. |
| Foraker Act of 1900 | U.S. law denying citizenship and representation to Puerto Ricans. Reflects U.S. expansionism and its ties to racism. |
| Jones Act of 1917 | U.S. law granting citizenship to Puerto Ricans. Tied Puerto Ricans closer to the U.S. but didn’t grant full rights, highlighting contradictions. |
| “Perfect Dictatorship” | Term used by Mario Vargas Llosa to describe the PRI regime in 20th-century Mexico. Highlights how Mexico had the appearance of democracy while maintaining authoritarian control. |
| “The U.S-Mexican border es una herida abierta” | Quote by Gloria Anzaldua meaning “the U.S.-Mexican border is an open wound.” Symbolized how the border represents centuries of Latino trauma regarding their identity. |
| Ernesto “Che” Guevara | Marxist revolutionary who advocated for anti-imperialism. Became a symbol of revolutionary resistance and social justice in Latin America. |
| Operation Bootstrap | Economic development program in Puerto Rico. Resulted in an improved Puerto Rican economy, but deepened dependence on the U.S., resulting in immigration to the states. |
| demographic decline | Indigenous populations suffered massive population loss due to disease, warfare, and exploitation. Population decline allowed Europeans to dominate and assimilate indigenous populations. |
| birthright citizenship | U.S. principle granting citizenship to anyone born in the U.S. It was vital for Latino communities, as it grants them citizenship despite restrictions based on race. |
| Tlateloco massacre 1968 | A violent crackdown on student protestors in Mexico. Exposed authoritarian rule during the 20th century and became a symbol of resistance against authority. |
| Chicano Moratorium 1970 | Chicano activists protested against the Vietnam War and racial injustice. It united Chicanos against racism and disproportionate Latino casualties in the war. |
| “immigration regime” | Describes the system of laws, policies, and enforcement used to control immigration. Reveals how immigration laws are used to enforce racial hierarchies and control labor. |
| “birds of passage” | Term used to describe temporary migrant laborers who work seasonally in the U.S. Reflects patterns of Latino migration and their relationship to the American workforce and American dependence on migrant labor. |
| Manifest Destiny | The American belief that America should expand coast to coast. It was used to justify wars of expansion and shaped U.S.-Latino relations. |
| land | Land was seized and exploited by the Europeans. Land ownership defined self-determination, and its loss represented colonization, and reclaiming it defined resistance. |
| dispossession/deterritorialization | Indigenous peoples and Latino minorities had their land seized due to colonization and war. Reflects patterns of inequality occurring over centuries. |
| “competing vocabularies” | The idea that different groups use different terms to define identity, race, and belonging. Highlights how notions of race and identity change over time and describes the Latino journey of self-determination. |
| railroad | Transportation infrastructure throughout the United States that relied on Chinese and Mexican labor. Railroads accelerated economic growth, but also resulted in labor exploitation and racism. |
| (Racialization Essay) How were Indigenous peoples racialized in the 16th century? | Encomienda system (forced labor under guise of Christianization) and Casta system (hierarchy by blood purity) |
| (Racialization Essay) Why is the Encomienda system significant? | Justified Indigenous exploitation through religion; defined them as subjects not citizens. |
| (Racialization Essay) How were Africans racialized in the 17th–18th centuries? | Transatlantic slave trade (Blackness = enslavement) and Virginia Slave Codes (1705, race-based hereditary servitude) |
| (Racialization Essay) Why is the Transatlantic slave trade significant? | Made Blackness synonymous with forced labor; institutionalized economic racialization. |
| (Racialization Essay) How were Asians racialized in the 19th century? | Chinese “coolie” labor in Caribbean/U.S. and Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) |
| (Racialization Essay) Why is the Chinese Exclusion Act significant? | First U.S. law restricting immigration by race — cast Asians as permanent outsiders. |
| (Racialization Essay) Discuss the racialization of Indigenous peoples, Africans, and Asians in the Americas across three historical moments. | Indigenous (16th c.): Encomienda, Casta system → religious/legal racialization; Africans (17th–18th c.): Slave trade, slave codes → economic/legal racialization; Asians (19th c.): Coolie labor, Chinese Exclusion Act → labor/immigration racialization |
| (Economic Essay) How did economic structures shape the Americas during the Colonial Era (16th–17th centuries)? | Potosí silver mines (Bolivia) and mita system of Indigenous forced labor; Sugar plantations in Brazil and the Caribbean (enslaved African labor) |
| (Economic Essay) Why is the Potosí silver mine and mita system significant? | Provided the economic foundation of the Spanish empire; exploited Indigenous labor for global trade. |
| (Economic Essay) Why are sugar plantations significant? | Central to the Atlantic economy; demonstrates how slavery built European wealth. |
| (Economic Essay) How did economic structures influence revolutions in the 18th–19th centuries? | Haitian Revolution (1791–1804); American Revolution (1775–1783) and mercantile restrictions |
| (Economic Essay) Why is the Haitian Revolution significant economically? | Uprising of enslaved people directly tied to plantation economy; challenged economic and racial order. |
| (Economic Essay) Why is the American Revolution significant economically? | Economic independence and resentment of British control motivated colonial rebellion. |
| (Economic Essay) How did economic structures shape the Americas in the 20th century? | Bracero Program (1942–1964); Industrialization and labor migration (U.S. and Latin America) |
| (Economic Essay) Why is the Bracero Program significant? | Showed how economic demand for cheap agricultural labor reproduced racialized migration patterns. |
| (Economic Essay) Why is industrialization and labor migration significant? | Economic modernization continued to rely on racial hierarchies in labor markets. |
| (Economic Essay) Discuss the role of economic issues and structures in the Americas from the Colonial Era to the 20th century. | Potosí/mita system & sugar plantations → Colonial Era; Haitian Revolution & American Revolution → Revolutionary Era; Bracero Program & industrialization → Modern Era. Shows how empire, enslavement, revolution, and migration were tied to economic structures. |