Focus of early research in sport psychology

Researchers attempted to profile athletes & predict performance behavior based on profile; Studies attempted to determine if athletes share the same personality profile (spoiler alert → No)

Goal of personality research

Provide reliable information about individual differences in personality & relationship between those differences and sport/exercise behaviors

Personality

Refers to individual’s unique but consistent psychological make-up; Relatively stable over time & across situations; Collection of traits; Overall pattern of psychological characteristics that make each person unique; Determined by multiple, interdependent factors

Structure of Personality

Psychological Core; Typical Responses; Role-Related Behaviors

Psychological Core

Developed from early environmental interactions; Includes perceptions of external world & self, basic attitudes, values, motives; Reflection of who we are; Least likely to change or be affected by situation

Typical Responses

Characterize person’s fairly predictable behavior & ways of reacting to environment

Role-Related Behaviors

Daily behaviors influenced by situation person is in; How person acts based on perception of social environment; Most easily changed aspect of personality

Trait Theories

Traits fundamental units of personality; Enduring, consistent internal attributes; Traits reflect motivational patterns of individual; Place emphasis on individual for explanation of behavior; Guided research in 1960s & 1970s, came under criticism in 1980s

Trait Theories Weaknesses

Fail to account for behavior; Knowing trait not enough to predict behavior in specific situation

Situational Approach

Situation or environment determines behavior; Behavior best explained by examining environment & individual’s reaction to that environment; Minimizes influence of traits on behavior

Situational Approach Weakness

Limited perspective for predicting behavior

Interactionist Approach

Traits of individual & situation are co-determinants of behavior; Consider interaction b/w traits & situation as predictor of behavior; Useful approach for studying influence of personality on sport/exercise behavior

Social Learning Theories

Focuses on situation & learned behaviors; If behavior learned, will be same in all situations

Social Learning Theories Weakness

Little regard for influence of personality traits on behavior

Integrative Models

Encompasses multiple perspectives to understand the individual & his/her behavior; Considers the interaction of traits & behavior in context (cultural, social); Views personality & influence on behavior as complex, dynamic relationship involving many factors; Holistic approach for studying personality & sport/exercise behavior

What Most findings indicate

Little evidence of general personality type among athletes; Little evidence for personality profile that separates elite athletes from others; Little/varied evidence that specific personality profiles are associated with specific sport/activities/positions; Individual differences play crucial role in behavior in sport/exercise; No research to support team selection based on personality measures; Valid personality measures focus on specific, relevant characteristics & psychological skills; Best when research conducted from integrative/interactionist perspective

Gat & McWhirter (1998)

Athletes differ from non-athletes on many personality traits

Schurr, Ashley, & Joy (1977) Athletes vs. NonAthletes

Athletes who participate in team & individual sports are more independent, more objective, & less anxious than non-athletes

Cooper (1969)

Athletes are more self-confident, competitive, & socially outgoing than nonathletes

Morgan (1980)

Athletes tend to be extroverts with low anxiety

McGill et al. (1986)

Personality & psychological testing shows professional cowboys to be alert, enthusiastic, forthright, self-sufficient, reality-based, & practical

Robinson (1985)

Compared to norm groups, elite rock climbers exhibit low anxiety, emotional detachment, & high levels of thrill-seeking

Effects of Sport Participation on Personality

Tattersfield (1971)

Tattersfield (1971)

Athletic participation before maturity has developmental effect on personality; Longitudinal study; Monitored personality profiles of boys in age-group swimming program for 5 years; Noted changes toward higher extraversion, stability, & dependence

Personality & Sport Type

Kroll & Crenshaw (1970)

Kroll & Crenshaw (1970)

Highly skilled football, wrestling, gymnastic, & karate athletes compared on basis of personality profile survey; Wrestlers & football players had similar profiles; Gymnasts & karate athletes differed from each other, as well as from other group

Singer (1969)

Study of collegiate baseball players & tennis players; Tennis players scored higher on desire to do one’s best, desire to lead, ability to analyze others, & were less willing to accept blame

Schurr, Ashley, & Joy (1977) Personality & Sport Type

Personality profile differences exist b/w individual & team sport athletes; Team sport athletes more anxious, dependent, & extroverted

Clingman & Hilliard (1987)

Endurance athletes’ personality traits differ significantly from population norm; Score higher on achievement, aggression, autonomy, dominance, harm avoidance, & play; Study included runners, cyclists, swimmers, & triathletes

Player Position

Cox (1987)

Cox (1987)

Psychological profiles of 157 female intercollegiate volleyball players; Blockers & hitters had similar profiles; Setters had different attentional focus – broader internal focus & able to think about several things at once

Schurr et al. (1984)

Comparison b/w football position & personality using Meyers-Briggs Inventory; Differences noted between linesmen & backfield players; Linesmen more organized & practical; Backfield players more flexible

Experience Level

As athletes become more elite, they become more alike in personality and other psychological traits

Summary

Not one discernible personality profile for athletes, but generalizations are possible

Generalizations

Athletes more likely to exhibit Type A personality; Athletes tend to share characteristics such as dominance, self-assurance, extraversion, dependence, and aggressiveness

Important considerations to take note of

Important to consider interaction of variables when assessing personality and behavior in sport/exercise settings; Important to consider context for interaction of variables when assessing personality and behavior in sport/exercise