The Marshmallow Test

a standardized assessment developed by Walter Mischel to determine whether children could delay the gratification of eating one marshmallow now for the promise of getting two marshmallows later

Developmental scientists

researchers who study how people grow and change over time

Zygote period

a time of rapid cell division which begins at fertilization

blastocyst

The center of the ball of cells in the uterus which hollow out

Ectopic pregnancy

occurs if the fertilized egg implants outside of the uterus instead of in the uterine wall

Monozygotic twins

when the fertilized eggs divides into two almost identical zygotes

Dizygotic twins

two eggs are released during the process of ovulation and are fertilized by different sperm, resulting in two zygotes that share no more genetic similarity than siblings born years apart

Embryo period

starts immediately after implantation, from weeks 3-8 of pregnancy

Cephalocaudal principles of development

idea that significant changes occur in the brain and the head before changes happen in the feet or the legs

Proximodistal principles of development

the idea that significant development occurs first at centrally located features, such as the heart or the lungs, before occurring at more peripheral locations, including the hands or fingers

Fetus period

final period of prenatal development, occurring from the ninth week of gestation until birth

Teratogens

environmental substances or agents that negatively impact the developing organism during gestation, particularly during the period of the embryo

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

represents a range of conditions associated with being exposed to alcohol prenatally

Fetal alcohol syndromes (FAS)

a lifelong condition in a child caused by alcohol exposure during pregnancy, resulting in physical, cognitive, and behavioral impairments.

Thalidomide

A medication used during the 1960s to prevent morning sickness. Many children were born with malformed limbs

Zika virus

Microcephaly (smaller head size) in infants, stillbirths

COVID-19

Research is ongoing, but it is a possible teratogen

Jean Piaget

developed an account of various stages of cognitive development from birth to adolescence, in part based on observations of his own children.

Assimilation

occurs when individuals encounter information that is similar to what they have in their existing cognitive structures; when this new information is encountered, it is added to existing cognitive structures.

Accommodation

a child creates a new cognitive structure to account for information that does not fit elsewhere

Constructivist

children are an active player in their own growth and development

Dialectical

growth and development is cognitive in nature and occurs when children encounter evidence which counters what they currently believe

Equilibration

according to Piaget, states in which cognitive structures agree with external realities

Disequilibrating

according to Piaget, states in which cognitive structures do not agree with external realities

Sensorimotor stage

0 to 2 years, when infants learn about the world largely through motor abilities

Object permanence

an understanding that objects and individuals continue to exist even if they cannot be seen, a development that occurs around nine months of age

A-not-B Task

a researcher hides a toy at location A. Once the infant successfully finds the toy, the toy is hidden at a new location B. Infants will often still search for the toy at location A, even after watching the researcher hide the toy at location B. This is called A-not-B error.

Mental representation

in Piaget's final substage of sensorimotor development (18-24 months), infants remember and re-enact situations and events that happened previously without any ongoing perceptual supports

Preoperational stage

2 to 7 years when children can mentally represent the past, but experiences issues with animism and egocentrism; routinely fails at conservation tasks

Symbolic thinking

the ability to use symbols (e.g., language) to stand for other things (e.g., complex feelings, ideas).

Animism

preschooler beliefs that stuffed toys and other inanimate objects have feelings

Egocentrism

difficulty of children in adopting the perspective of another individual, as seen in children aged two to seven in Piaget's developmental model

Conservation tasks

children do not yet realize that certain physical qualities of an object remain the same despite changes to its physical appearance. For example, children may not yet understand that the amount of clay remains the same whether it is made into a ball or rolled into a long snake.

Concrete operational

7 to 11 years; Reasons well about concrete events and routinely passes conservation tasks; still experiences difficulty thinking and reasoning abstractly

Identity

occurs when children realize that the transformations they observe do not alter the medium in any meaningful way: even though the ball of clay changes shape in conservation of mass tasks, the amount of clay does not change

Compensation

occurs when children recognize that the imposed changes cancel each other out. For instance, they understand that the liquid in a tall skinny glass takes up more vertical space than a short fat one, which has more horizontal space

Inversion

children realize that each of the processes imposed in conservation tasks is easily reversible. They know that the coins spaced out in conservation of number tasks can be put close together again.

Formal operational

12 years and up; Able to think and reason about hypothetical situations and/or abstract problems

Adolescent egocentrism

adolescents' perception that others are focused on them, their feelings, and their actions.

Impulse control

a factor which contributes to adolescents' risky decision-making

Dementia

a loss of cognitive functioning due to Alzheimer's disease, vascular disease, or Parkinson's disease, among others.

Alzheimer's Disease

characterized by the gradual onset of impairments in memory, language, and other cognitive functions, along with increased confusion and depression that increasingly complicates the completion of activities for daily living

Lev Vygotsky's cognitive development theory

a sociocultural theory which portrayed cognitive development as a continuous process that could not be understood without considering the environment in which children were raised

Scaffold

cognitive support offered by a teacher to a learner that helps the learner acquire new skills or knowledge. Such support is withdrawn when the learner can perform the skill on their own

Zone of proximal development

refers to the distance between what a child can accomplish alone and what a child can accomplish with assistance

Egocentric speech

when one talks to oneself out loud to help them solve difficult problems-- this sort of talk is internalized over time and becomes silent inner speech

Attachment

refers to the manner in which we interact with our primary caregivers as infants and with our romantic partners as adults.

Imprinting

when an offspring forms early attachment by following around the first moving object that they see after hatching-- it suggests that young organisms may be biologically predisposed to form relationships to ensure their survival

Harry Harlow's Dependency studies

demonstrated that infant rhesus monkeys form an affectionate bond with soft, cloth surrogate mothers rather than wire surrogate mothers that provided a food source

Strange situation paradigm

an observational assessment that places a toddler, her mother, and a stranger in eight unique situations; for an example of one paper using the Strange Situation, researchers what mothers and their children interact with one another, and how children behave when alone and in the presence of a stranger

Securely attached

infants and adults are characterized by emotional closeness and a healthy level of independence and exploration

Insecure-resistant

infants who are characterized by being clingy after the parent returns; may be born out of inconsistent parental responsiveness

Insecure-avoidant

infants characterized by avoidance of a primary caregiver upon reunion after separation; may be born of out parental disengagement with the infant

Disorganized attachment

characterized by extreme fear and dissociation; infants with this attachment classification may demonstrate odd behaviors when interacting with their mothers, such as wanting to approach them while also seeking to move away

Social clock

represents cultural norms about appropriate times for key life events

Heinz dilemma

in Kohlberg's theory of moral development, a vignette (short story) presenting a moral dilemma to assess moral reasoning

Pre-conventional morality

have a limited understanding of morality beyond the idea that doing bad things results in punishment, whereas doing good results in reward

Conventional morality

the choices individuals make are no longer dictated by rewards and punishments or reciprocity but instead are based on conforming to societal pressures. Individuals blindly accept social conventions, wanting to maintain the status quo so as to be viewed as a "good" boy or girl.

Post-conventional morality

individuals who understand that moral decisions are based on internal principles and are not entirely dictated by society or other individuals. Individuals develop their own ethical principles that may or may not clash with societal expectations.

Emerging adulthood

a period of development ranging from late teens to mid-20's marked by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and exploring possibilities for one's life.

Identity diffusion

low on exploration & low on commitment- a person who has not experienced a crisis and has not yet committed to an identity; least mature

Foreclosed identity

low on exploration and high on commitment- a person who is committed to a set of values (usually from significant adults); has not explored alternatives

Psychosocial Moratorium

high on exploration & low on commitment- a person who is actively exploring different roles, belief systems, and career goals; has not made a commitment to any of them; healthy & normal

Identity achievement

high on exploration & high on commitment- a person has a clear self-concept and high self-esteem and is able to cope with stress and change

Secure or autonomous attached adults

react to relationships in an even and positive manner. They are comfortable and confident in their ability to become emotionally close to others, and they enjoy a balance of closeness and independence in their relationships as a result

Anxious or preoccupied adults

tend to feel uncomfortable with independence and strive for constant intimacy and closeness in their intimate relationships

Dismissive or avoidant

adults who are perfectly comfortable without close emotional relationships. They tend to believe that close relationships will compromise their independence, and they often avoid such relationships altogether

Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST)

predicts, based on one's place in the life course and the perception of time left in life, that younger adults will value information-related goals and older adults will place emphasis on emotion-related goals

Bereavement

can increase risky behavior and impact moral decision-making, and it may also take a toll on physical health, tend to have higher rates of disability, hospitalization, and medication use compared to non-bereaved individuals (losing someone you are emotionally close with)

Trust vs. Mistrust

- Trust: an infant whose parent consistently comes when she cried - Mistrust: an infant whose parent does not come or who comes only sporadically

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

- Autonomy: when toddlers exert their own desires and will, such as choosing a toy or engaging in potty training, and receive positive and supportive parental responses - Shame and Doubt: if parents respond to their toddlers' developmental moments with harshness or criticism

Initiative vs. Guilt

- Initiative: Preschoolers might exert their own decision-making power by choosing what they want to eat or what to wear to school, and their desires are well-received and supported - Guilt: when a preschooler makes their own decisions and their decisions are oppressed or criticized

Industry vs. Inferiority

- Industry: a child who does well academically and finds a niche in a social group (e.g., "theatre kids"). - Inferiority: a child who struggles academically and/or does not find a social group

Intimacy vs. Isolation

- Intimacy: a young adult who has successful (even if shorter-term) romantic relationships with others - Isolation: a young adult who does not have any romantic relationships or who has romantic relationships that are consistently tumultuous or problematic

Generativity vs. Stagnation

- Generativity: adults who find meaningfulness in their work, be it in their career or their family - Stagnation: those who do not have meaningful outlets

Integrity vs. Despair

- Integrity: the realization that one has established their legacy through their career or by raising a family - Despair: those who feel as though they have not achieved what they set out to accomplish

Identity vs. Role Confusion

- Identity: an adolescent who explores and ultimately decides on an identity to pursue - Role confusion: those who pursue nothing or pursue too many interests

Longitudinal research

a within-subject experimental design to examine how participants develop over time on a variable of interest

Cross-sectional research

a between-subjects design where different individuals at different ages are compared with each other on a variable of interest

Novelty preference

the preference of infants in looking longer at new information in the environment, as compared to old information

Habituation paradigms

research method used to study cognitive development, particularly in infants, by measuring their responses to repeated stimuli.

Theory of mind

the understanding that others have feelings, thoughts, and desires that differ from one's own, through voluntary behaviors

Recall memory

the ability to recount specific episodes or events from the past, we have to employ a different technique

Elicited imitation

a three-dimensional behavioral recall task which has kids interact with items that differ in their home compared to the lab in that lab-based events can be used to create a sequence of events that infants commonly find interesting or entertaining

MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories:

a questionnaire which features different tests for children of different ages

Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised and the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire:

temperament questionnaires which cover a range of age=appropriate behaviors relevant to activity level, positive and negative effect, and impulsivity, among others

Assent

indicate their own willingness to participate in research

Dementia effect on the brain

cortical mass shrinking, protein tangles and plaques in AD, cell deterioration=bigger ventricles, loss of gray matter

Dementia and family history

20-year-olds with a parent with dementia have smaller hippocampi (involved in episodic memory) than those without

Modifiable risk factors in dementia

higher education and addressing hearing loss early makes one less likely to have dementia. traumatic head injury, alcohol frequency, obesity, smoking, social isolation and air pollution all increases risk of dementia.