Psychology of Women and Gender

focuses on how gender influences human thoughts, emotions, and behavior

What does the psychology of women and gender investigate?

1. gender differences (and similarities) in emotion, communication, and cognition 2. gender roles and expectations in family, work, and society 3. power, privilege, and oppression, how gender interacts with systems like race or class

Feminism

a social movement and a set of political and moral beliefs aiming to end gender-based oppression and inequality

Feminist Psychology

- gender as a social construct rather than a biological fact - empowerment of marginalized groups through psychological knowledge - the influence of context (social, political, and cultural) on mental health and identity - feminist psychologists seek to create inclusive and reflexive research, giving voice to women and gender minorities and addressing real-world inequalities

Common goals for: psychology of women/gender, feminism, and feminist psychology

1. understanding gender scientifically 2. dismantling systems of oppression 3. applying feminist principles to psychological science

Feminism: First Wave

- late 1800s-1920s - legal equality and suffrage (right to vote) - 19th amendment

Feminism: Second Wave

- 1960s-1980s - workplace, reproductive rights, family roles ("the personal is politicval") - equal pay act (1963) - roe v. wade (1973)

Feminism: Third Wave

- 1990s-200s - intersectionality and diversity; inclusion of race, class, sexuality - expanded feminism beyond white, middle-class women

Feminism: Fourth Wave

- 2010s-present - digital activism, LGBTQ+ inclusion, body positivity, #MeToo - social media advocacy and global awareness

Liberal Feminism

- gender equality through law, policy, and education; women and men are fundamentally similar - equal rights amendment (ERA), workplace equality

Radical Feminism

- patriarchy is the root of all oppression; needs total social transformation - violence against women, control of women's bodies

Socialist Feminism

- gender inequality is tied to capitalism and class systems - wage gap, unpaid domestic labor

Cultural Feminism

- values women's unique experiences and traits; believes feminine qualities are undervalued - recognition of caregiving and emotional labor

Women of Color/Intersectional Feminism

- links to sexism to racism, colonialism, and class oppression; challenges white feminism - reproductive justice, housing, prison reform

Queer Feminism

- questions binary categories of sex/gender/sexuality; advocates gender fluidity - challenging heteronormativity, trans inclusion

Postcolonial/Transnational Feminism

- examines global power, imperialism, and the assumption that Western women are "free" - critiques hijab bans, the assumption that Western women are globalization's impact

How to Locate Yourself in Feminist Thinking

1. reflect on your own social identities (gender, race, class, ability, sexuality) and how they influence your view of feminism 2. people's reaction to the term, "feminist" vary widely, from seeing it as empowerment to misunderstanding it as anti-male 3. the goal is to recognize that feminism is diverse and evolving, and that locating yourself helps build empathy and critical awareness

Social Identity

a person's sense of self that comes from their affiliation with different social groups (muslim, mexican, a woman)

Sexism

bias based on the belief that men are superior to women

Matrix of Domination

all systems of oppression intersect and interact with one another (gender --> sexism, race --> racism, disability --> ableism)

Unearned Entitlement

- things of value that should be provided to everyone, but aren't - ex.) everyone should feel safe walking alone at night, but women often do not

Invisibility

- individuals with marginalized identities are made invisible - ex.) textbooks that mostly feature white historical figures make contributions of people of color invisible

Conferred Dominance

- one group is assumed to have more authority or power over another - ex.) in meetings, men's opinions are often given more weight than women's

Stereotypes

- beliefs about characteristics of a group that are generalized to all members - ex.) assuming women are emotional or men are aggressive

Self-Stereotyping

- when individuals act in ways that confirm stereotypes because they think they're supposed to - ex.) a girl staying quiet in class because she believes "girls shouldn't talk too much"

Legitimizing Myths

- attitudes, values, and beliefs that justify social hierarchies - ex.) the idea that "men are naturally better leaders" or "poor people just don't work hard enough"

Privilege

- often invisible to those experiencing it - ex.) a white person not having to worry about being followed in a store because of their race

Hostile Sexism

- openly negative evaluations and stereotypes about women - expressed through behaviors such as harassment, exclusion, or verbal hostility - ex.) women are less competent, overly emotional, or manipulative

Benevolent Sexism

- appears positive on the surface but still reinforces traditional gender roles - reinforces the idea that women should behave in certain "feminine" ways to deserve respect - ex.) include treating women as fragile, needing protection, or placing them on a pedestal

Modern Sexism

- denial that gender discrimination still exists - seen in attitudes that blame women for inequality or view efforts toward equality as unnecessary - often expressed subtly, such as through jokes, dismissive comments, or resistance to feminist ideas

Sexism Language

use of gendered or demeaning terms toward women

Sexism Media

stereotypical portrayals that limit how women and men are represented

Sexism Workplace

pay disparities, unequal opportunities for promotion, and different expectations of competence

Sexism Everyday Interaction

interupting women more often in conversations, questioning their expertise, or assuming caregiving responsibilities

What We've Been Taught About Gender

- society often teaches that there are only 2 distinct genders, male and female, based on biological sex - these binary ideas are reinforced through family, media, religion, and education - from early childhood, individuals are taught what is considered "appropriate" for their gender, influencing self-concept and social interactions

Gender Essentialism

- the belief that differences between men and women are natural, fixed, and biologically determined rather than socially constructed - assumes that men and women have inherent, unchangeable traits that make them suited for specific roles or behaviors - treats gender categories as uniform and ignores individual variation - ex.) the idea that women are naturally nurturing while men are naturally logical

Empirical Support for Gender Essentialism

- research challenges the assumption that psychological or behavioral differences are purely biological - many perceived gender differences are actually due to socialization, cultural expectations, and situational contexts rather than biology - essentialist explanations can be appealing because they offer simple, stable explanations for complex social phenomena

Consequences for Gender Essentialism

- reinforces gender stereotypes and restricts individual expression - justifies discrimination and social hierarchies (unequal pay, leadership gaps, and occupational segregation) - makes gender role seem "natural", which discourages social change - contributes to bias in research, education, and policy by framing gender differences as biologically inevitable rather than socially shaped

Heteronormativity

the idea that people fit into a binary of 2 distinct categories (male and female) and that these categories naturally align with heterosexual attraction

Heteronormative Assumptions

- biological sex = gender identity = sexual orientation - ex.) someone born male is expected to identify as a man and be attracted to women - these assumptions are socially constructed, not biologically required

Heteronormative Reality

gender, sex, and attraction exist on a spectrum; reality does not conform to the binary

Biological Variation

not all bodies fit neatly into male or female definitions

Intersex

a term describing individuals born with chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical features that are not sex-typical

Klinefelter's Syndrome

extra X chromosome, often assigned male at birth (XXY)

Turner's Syndrome

missing 1 X chromosome, typically assigned female (XO)

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)

XY individuals with female-typical traits due to an inability to respond to testosterone

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

XX individual may develop more "male-typical" features due to excess androgens

5-Aplha Reductase Deficiency

XY individuals may develop female traits at birth and more male traits at puberty

Gender Identity

an individual's internal understanding of themselves as a man, woman, both, neither or somewhere in between

Cisgender

identity aligns with the sex assigned at birth

Transgender

identity does not align with the sex assigned at birth

Gender Expression

the outward presentation of gender (through clothing, voice, hairstyle, or behavior)

Similarity Between Gender Identity and Gender Expression

- gender identity and expression do not always align with assigned sex - ex.) a person assigned female at birth may identify as nonbinary and express their gender through an androgynous style - gender descriptors are dynamic, and people may use different terms to describe their experience over time

Challenges Faced by Trans and Nonbinary Individuals

- experience discrimination, misgendering, and lack of access to gender-affirming healthcare - gender-affirming medical interventions (GAMIs) such as hormone therapy or surgeries, improve mental health and reduce suicidal ideation - barriers to transitioning include money, time, family rejection, racism, religious beliefs, laws, and biased healthcare systems

Challenges Faced by Intersex Individuals

- face non-consensual surgeries during infancy that aim to "normalize" their bodies - these procedures can cause trauma, shame, and depression later in life - adults with DSD often report anger about being denied autonomy over their bodies

Trans, Gender Nonbinary, and Intersex Protective Factors

- parental acceptance and affirming environments reduce risk of depression and suicidality - open communication about gender identity and body autonomy promotes well-being

Sexual Orientation

an individual's predisposition toward sexual and/or romantic attraction to persons of the same sex/gender, other sexes/genders, or multiple sexes/genders

Asexuality

no sexual attraction to others

Bisexuality

attraction to both women and men

Demisexuality

attraction only after forming a strong emotional connection

Heteroflexible

primarily attracted to the opposite gender but with some same-gender attraction

Pansexuality

attraction to people regardless of gender identity

Queer

a broad term for identities outside of heterosexual norms

Skoliosexuality

attraction to nonbinary or gender-nonconforming individuals

Heterosexism

the assumption that heterosexuality is the norm or superior

Monosexism

the belief that attraction to only 1 sex or gender is the standard

Binegativity

social stigma directed at bisexual individuals

Challenges Faced by Sexual and Gender Minorities

- navigating societal and family expectations - facing violence or exclusion due to identity disclosure ("coming out") - underrepresentation or stereotyping in media and research - psychological strain from internalized stigma or lack of acceptance

Sex, Gender, Sexuality, and Attraction

- sex = biological traits (chromosomes, anatomy, hormones) - gender = socially constructed identity and roles - sexuality = who one is emotionally or physically attracted to - attraction = exists on multiple levels (romantic, sexual, emotional)

Sexuality is...

multifaceted, socially situated, and dynamic; it can change any time

Sexual Fluidity

- attraction to people with different gender identities in different situations - engaging in relationships with individuals is not typically part of one's usual attraction pattern - attraction that varies across different days or life stages

Social Learning Theory

- children learn gendered behaviors through observation, imitation, and reinforcement - parents, teachers, and media act as primary reinforcers - ex.) a girl is praised for wearing a dress but teased for playing rough, reinforcing traditional gender norms

Cognitive Developmental Theory

- proposes that children actively construct their understanding of gender as they grow - around ages 3-4 they develop gender identity ("I'm a boy/girl) - later, they understand gender constancy, the idea that gender is stable over time - once children form this concept, they seek out behaviors that align with their identified gender

Gender Schema Theory

- builds on cognitive theory but adds that children learn cultural definitions of gender early on - these schemas act like mental maps that guide how they interpret the world - ex.) a child who develops a schema that "trucks are for boys" will pay more attention to toys labeled for boys

Social Role Theory

- gender differences arise from social and cultural expectations, not biology - society assigns roles (women as caregivers, men as providers), and individuals adopt behaviors to fit these roles - these expectations reinforce stereotypes and maintain power hierarchies

Parent Gender Socialization

- often provide gendered toys, clothes, and activities (dolls vs. trucks) - encourage behavior that aligns with traditional gender roles - fathers tend to discourage "feminine" behavior in boys more than mothers do

Peer Gender Socialization

- enforce gender norms through acceptance or ridicule - peer groups reward conformity (boys praised for toughness, girls for appearance)

School Gender Socialization

- teachers may hold different expectations for boys and girls - curriculum and classroom dynamics often reinforce gender roles (boys called on more, girls praised for neatness)

Media Gender Socialization

- portrays men and women in stereotypical roles (women as caregivers, men as leaders) - repetition of these images teaches children what is "normal," or desirable

Gender Socialization

- the process through which individuals learn the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations considered appropriate for their gender in a given culture - starts at birth - this process shapes identity, interests, and how individuals perceive their own and others' roles - it is continuous, reinforced throughout life by family, peers, media, and institutions

Infancy (0-2 years)

babies begin to recognize gendered cues (voice pitch, clothing colors)

Early Childhood (3-5 years)

- children label themselves as boy or girl (gender identity) - begin to understand simple gender stereotypes

Middle Childhood (6-9 years)

- develop stronger awareness of gender roles - begin self-socializing, seeking out gender-typical activities

Adolescence and Beyond

- gender roles expand to include sexuality and attraction - pressure to conform increases, especially through media and peers - individuals may begin to question or challenge societal expectations

Beauty Norms

shared standards for attractiveness, often valuing traits like whiteness, thinness, able-bodiedness, symmetry, and hairlessness

Where Do We Learn Beauty Norms From?

- parents: comments and attitudes about weight and appearance shape body esteem - peers: "fat talk", teasing, and appearance pressure increase dissatisfaction, while positive body talk improves confidence - media: promotes thinness and eurocentric ideals; underrepresents fat, older, and disabled women

Objectification

seeing someone as an object to be looked at rather than a full person; women learn to view themselves through others' eyes (self-objectification)

Objectification Consequences

- constant body monitoring (body surveillance) - body shame and dissatisfaction - negative effects like lower performance, depression, and disordered eating - increases with age

Menstruation

- commonly viewed negatively and surrounded by secrecy - lack of education increases negative experiences - not all who menstruate are women

Body Awareness

- intuitive eating and awareness of hunger/satiety cues relates to higher body esteem - self-objectification lowers this awareness

Exercise Motivation

- appearance-based exercise leads to dissatisfaction and disordered eating - health-based exercise improves consistency and self-esteem

Sexual Scripts

descriptions of behaviors that reflect beliefs about what is "normal" sexual behavior in a given culture

Sexualization

the imposition of sexuality on others, the consideration of people as sex objects, or the valuing of people merely for their sexual appeal or sexual behavior

Self-Sexualization

purposely engaging in behaviors or practices that are associated with sexualization

Sex Work

an umbrella terms that refers to the exchange of sexual services, performance, or products for compensation