What is learning?

A relatively enduring change in the mechanisms of behaviour resulting from experience with environmental events specifically related to that behaviour.

What is maturation?

Maturation refers to changes in behaviour that occur due to the natural growth process, not as a result of experience.

What is fatigue?

A temporary decrease in behaviour caused by repeated or excessive use of muscles involved in the behaviour.

What is performance?

The observable behaviour that may reflect learning but can also be influenced by other factors.

What is practice?

Repeated performance with a behaviour, often necessary for learning to occur.

How is learning identified at the behavioural level?

By changes in observable actions or responses. E.g., a child learning to ride a bike demonstrates new patterns of coordination, which can be directly seen and measured.

How is learning identified at the physiological level?

By changes in bodily processes, such as muscle coordination and hormonal responses. E.g,. learning to play a musical instrument not only changes how you move your fingers but also how your muscles and nerves work together more efficiently.

How is learning identified at the neural level?

By changes in the brain and nervous system. E.g., changes in neurotransmitter activity, and even structural changes in brain regions involved in memory and skill.

What are the three levels that learning happens on?

(1) behavioural. (2) physiological. (3) neural.

How does learning support adaptation?

(1) filters out unimportant information. (2) helps anticipate rewards/dangers and prepare accordingly. (3) improves chances of success in different situations. (4) allows us to adapt to new challenges.

True or false, learning is limitless?

False. Innate tendencies and biological factors shape what and how we can learn.

What is biological preparedness?

Refers to how some species are biologically predisposed to learn certain behaviours more easily than others.

Give an example of biological preparedness?

Animals quickly learn to associate taste with illness (taste aversion), but may struggle to learn behaviours that go against their natural instincts.

Why is learning often compared to sculpting wood rather than molding clay?

Because wood has grain and knots that make some changes easier than others, while clay can be shaped in any direction.

During the 4th Century BCE, what concept did Aristotle propose?

Associationism.

During the 17th Century, what concept did Descartes’ introduce?

Mind-Body Dualism and Reflexes.

How did Descartes’ describe reflexes?

As automatic, mechanical responses to stimuli.

During the late 19th Century, what prominent experiments did Hermann Ebbinghaus conduct?

The first systematic experiments on memory, testing associationist principles with nonsense syllables.

During the early 20th Century, what popular approach to psychology emerged, which was especially influenced by John Watson?

Behaviourism.

What concept in psychology did behaviourist John Watson reject?

Introspection, instead he emphasised observable behaviour.

In the mid 20th Century, what did B.F Skinner introduce to psychology?

Operant conditioning and the Skinner box.

What 'revolution' emerged during the 1950s-1970s?

The Cognitive Revolution, which studied mental processes.

What contemporary era of psychology emerged during the 1980s and is still used today?

Connectionism and Neural Networks.

What are Aristotle's three principles of association?

(1) contiguity. (2) similarity. (3) contrast.

What does Aristotle's principle of contiguity mean?

It refers to closeness in time or space.

True or false, Descartes argued that the mind and body are separate entities.

True.

How did Descartes view the human body?

As a machine.

What did John Locke mean when he said that the mind is a "tabula rasa"?

The mind is a blank slate at birth, whereby all knowledge comes from experience, and complex ideas are built from simpler ones through association.

Which Russian physiologist is famous for his work on classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov.

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments, what did the sound of the bell represent?

The conditioned stimulus.

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments, what did the food represent?

The unconditioned stimulus.

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments, what type of response was represented when the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell.

The conditioned response.

Who studied how animals learn through trial and error using puzzle boxes?

Edward Thorndike.

What was Thorndike's Law of Effect?

A concept which states that behaviours followed by satisfying outcomes are MORE LIKELY to be repeated, while those followed by discomfort are LESS LIKELY to recur.

Who studied how reinforcement and punishment shape behaviour?

B.F Skinner using the Skinner box.

Who led the famous Little Albert experiment in which it was demonstrated that emotional responses could be conditioned in humans?

John Watson.

In the Little Albert experiment, how did John Watson condition a child to fear a rat?

By pairing a loud noise with the presence of a white rat.

What was behaviourism heavily criticised for?

For ignoring mental processes and internal states.

What type of metaphor used in the Cognitive Revolution helped researchers model thinking, memory, and problem-solving?

The computer metaphor.

What is the Connectionist model?

A model inspired by brain research, which uses artificial neural networks to simulate learning.

What is the Information Processing model?

This approach likens the mind to a computer, with information flowing from input (sensation) through processing (thinking, memory) to output (behaviour).

What best distinguishes connectionist models from symbolic models?

Connectionist models use networks of simple units to process information in parallel

Who developed a staining technique which allowed scientists to visualise entire neurons for the first time?

Camillo Golgi.

Who expanded on Golgi's staining technique to show that neurons are individual cells, not a continuous network, establishing the neuron doctrine.

Ramon y Cajal.

Who demonstrated that spinal nerves have separate sensory and motor pathways?

Francois Magendie.

Who was involved in a railroad accident that caused severe brain injury, and provided evidence that specific brain regions are linked to personality and behaviour?

Phineas Gage.

On which patient did Paul Broca discover a brain region critical for speech, linking brain anatomy to language function.

A patient known as 'Tan.'

What was so special about Tan, Paul Broca's patient?

‘Tan’ who could understand language but was unable to speak. This was due to damage in Tan's left frontal lobe (Broca's Area), which is critical for speech production.

Who first introduced the concept of the synapse?

Charles Sherrington.

What is the Neuron Doctrine?

A doctrine states that the nervous system is made up of individual, specialised cells called neurons.

What is the Synaptic Theory?

A theory describing how neurons communicate at specialised junctions called synapses.

What is the Reflex Arc?

A neural pathway that controls automatic responses to stimuli. It involves a sensory neuron, a connecting neuron in the spinal cord, and a motor neuron that triggers a response.

Who is credited with establishing the neuron doctrine, which states that the nervous system is made up of individual cells?

Santiago Ramón y Cajal.

What was the main significance of the Phineas Gage case for biopsychology?

It showed that damage to specific brain regions can alter personality and behaviour.

In what study did a 16 month old get trained to press a lever for snacks using principles of behaviorism and reinforcement?

Baby in a Skinner Box (1960).

What methods allow researchers to visualise brain structure and activity?

Imaging techniques like MRI, fMRI, PET, and CT scans.

What kind of methods are EEG, MEG, and single-unit recordings?

Electrophysiological methods.

What is Translational Research?

It bridges the gap between animal and human studies.

What kind of variable is the one that the experimenter manipulates?

Independent variable (IV).

What type of variable is the one that is measured?

Dependent variable (DV).

What best distinguishes MRI from EEG as research methods?

MRI provides detailed images of brain structure, while EEG measures electrical activity over time.

Which best describes the primary difference between MRI and fMRI in neuroscientific research?

MRI provides detailed anatomical images, while fMRI reveals functional changes in brain activity.