Key functions in politics in society

Resolving conflict, distributing resources, and organizing power (deciding who gets what, when, and how)

Difference between authority and legitimacy in government

Authority is the recognized right to use power; legitimacy is the public's belief that this power is rightfully held/exercised

The Virginia Plan

Proposed a bicameral legislature with representation based on state population, favoring large states

1st Continental Congress vs 2nd Continental Congress

The 1st (1774) petitioned Britain to address colonial grievances without seeking independence; the 2nd (1775-1781) managed the Revolutionary War, adopted the Declaration of Independence, and governed under the Articles of Confederation

Political differences between Thomas Hobbes and John Locke

Hobbes believed people are naturally selfish/violent and need a strong, near-absolute sovereign to maintain order; Locke believed people have natural rights (life, liberty, property) and government exists by consent to protect those rights

The concept of authority in government

Legitimate, recognized power to make and enforce decisions/laws

A key characteristic of direct democracy

Citizens vote directly on laws/policies rather than through elected representatives

Why federalism was beneficial for the US during its founding period

It balanced power between national and state governments, easing fears of tyranny while still allowing a stronger central government than the Articles provided

What a unitary system is

A system where all power is held by the central government, which may delegate limited power to local units

The balance of liberty & equality in a democratic society

Democratic societies must sometimes limit individual liberty to ensure equal treatment/opportunity for all

The fundamental concept that established the legitimacy of the new American nation

Popular sovereignty (consent of the governed)

The concept of liberty

Freedom from excessive government control/interference in one's life, thoughts, and actions

Social contract theory

The idea that government's authority comes from an agreement among individuals who consent to be governed in exchange for protection of their rights

The Mayflower Compact

An early agreement establishing self-government and majority rule among Plymouth colonists; an early example of a social contract in America

The concept of legitimacy

The public's acceptance that a government's authority and actions are rightful

What police power is

States' inherent authority to regulate for public health, safety, welfare, and morals

An historical event that shows how excessive focus on order can threaten liberty

Shays' Rebellion (or the Alien and Sedition Acts / Japanese American internment) led to fears of disorder pushing toward restricting individual liberties

What a bicameral system is

A legislature with two chambers (e.g., House and Senate)

The New Jersey Plan

Proposed a unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state, favoring small states

Electoral College and the framers' vision for presidential selection

Reflects the framers' distrust of direct popular election; they wanted an indirect method filtered through electors, balancing popular will with state input

A federal system of government

Power is divided/shared between a national government and state governments

Madison's system of checks & balances

Each branch (legislative, executive, judicial) has powers to check the others, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful

A State's relationship with local government

Unitary system (local governments are created by and subordinate to the state)

Purpose of establishing federalism

To divide power between national and state governments to prevent tyranny and allow governance suited to local needs

Anti-federalists' reason for demanding the Bill of Rights

They feared a strong central government would trample individual liberties, so they demanded explicit written protections

Federal courts' power to determine if actions by other branches align with the constitution

Judicial review

The commerce clause in Article 1 Section 8 & its contribution

Grants Congress power to regulate interstate commerce; has been broadly interpreted to expand federal power into many areas of economic and social life

Reason why the process of constitution amendment is difficult

It requires supermajorities (2/3 of Congress or states to propose, 3/4 of states to ratify), intentionally making change slow and consensus-based

President's role in the legislative process

Can propose legislation, sign or veto bills passed by Congress, and give the State of the Union

Interstate compacts and when Congress must approve

Agreements between states (e.g., over shared resources or borders); Congress must approve compacts that affect federal power or other states' interests

What principle of federalism the National Guard demonstrates

Dual state-federal authority - states control the Guard but the federal government can call it into national service

Why emergency response during natural disasters causes problems

Responsibilities are split between state and federal governments, causing coordination/funding delays

A potential conflict between state and National authority (example)

Marijuana legalization (legal in some states, illegal federally) or immigration enforcement disputes

A concurrent power shared between federal and state governments

Taxation (both federal and state governments can levy taxes)

Court case that used Congress's right to use the necessary and proper clause

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

How the Civil War amendments impacted the balance of power between state and federal governments

The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments expanded federal power over states by limiting states' ability to permit slavery/deny rights, shifting the balance toward national authority

Difference between dual federalism and cooperative federalism

Dual federalism ("layer cake") keeps state and federal roles separate; cooperative federalism ("marble cake") blends responsibilities, often through shared funding programs

Difference between block grants and categorical grants

Block grants give states broad funding with few restrictions; categorical grants are narrowly restricted to specific programs/purposes

Factors that influence the amount of federal aid a state receives

State population, poverty/need levels, and compliance with federal program requirements

Program that represents the largest categorical grant expenditure

Medicaid

The case of Gibbons v. Ogden in 1824

Established that Congress has broad power to regulate interstate commerce, reinforcing federal authority over states

Purpose of the New Deal Programs and their impact on federal-state relations

Aimed to address the Great Depression through federal relief, recovery, and reform programs; greatly expanded federal power and cooperative federalism

How the 2022 Dobbs decision impacted state authority over abortion rights

Overturned Roe v. Wade, returning abortion policy authority to the states

How a democratic republic balances popular sovereignty with effective governance

Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf, balancing the people's voice with effective, stable governance

The advantage of representative democracy over direct democracy

More efficient/practical for large populations and allows for informed, deliberate decision-making by elected officials

A feature of Constitutional democracy

Limited government where power is restrained by a written constitution and rule of law

Role of the electoral college in US presidential elections

Formally elects the president via state-allocated electors rather than a national popular vote

Locke's social contract theory and how colonists responded to British taxation

Colonists argued that taxation without their consent (no representation in Parliament) violated their natural rights, per Lockean theory that government requires the consent of the governed

State's contribution to policy innovation in the American federal system

States act as "laboratories of democracy," testing policies that can later be adopted nationally

The theory that strongly emphasizes that public policy reflects the will of the greatest number of citizens

Pluralism (majoritarian/participatory democracy theory)

The Elite theory

Holds that a small group of wealthy, powerful individuals/elites actually control policy, regardless of public opinion

What Hyperpluralism is

When too many competing interest groups make government weak/ineffective because it tries to please everyone

An example of what illustrates the tensions between liberty and order in public policy

Debates over gun control, surveillance/security laws (e.g., Patriot Act), or COVID-19 lockdown mandates

Difference between the Congress of the Confederation and modern Congress in representation

Under the Articles, each state had one vote regardless of population; modern Congress has representation based on population (House) and equal state representation (Senate)

Difference between conservatism and liberalism with economic policy

Conservatism generally favors limited government intervention, lower taxes, and free markets; liberalism generally favors more government regulation and spending to address inequality

The fundamental weakness of the national government under the Articles of Confederation

No power to tax or regulate interstate commerce, and no strong executive to enforce laws

Shay's Rebellion's effect on American Political Development

Exposed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and accelerated the push for a stronger central government

What the Declaration of Independence primarily influenced

Established the philosophical justification for independence based on natural rights and government by consent

What the Articles of Confederation in Article III suggested about the phrase "league of friendship"

The states formed a loose alliance for mutual defense, not a strong unified national government