Mediastinum
Region between lungs in thoracic cavity, which contains heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland
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| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Mediastinum | Region between lungs in thoracic cavity, which contains heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland |
| What muscle separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities? | Diaphragm |
| Levels of Organization | Subatomic Particles, Atom, Molecule, Macromolecule, Organelle, Cell, Tissue, Organ system, Organism |
| Metabolism | The sum of all chemical reactions in a living system: energy production and nutrient cycling |
| Homeostasis | Maintenance of a stable internal environment |
| Cranial Cavity | Houses brain |
| Vertebral Canal (Spinal Cavity) | Contains Spinal cord |
| Thoracic cavity | Lungs and Thoracic viscera |
| Abdominopelvic cavity | Abdominal and Pelvic viscera |
| Stomach, Liver, Spleen, Kidneys, Small intestine, and most of large intestine are in what cavity? | Abdominal cavity |
| End of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs are in what cavity? | Pelvic cavity |
| Name the abdominal regions | Right Hypochondriac, Epigastric region, Left Hypochondriac region Right Lateral region, Umbilical region, Left lateral regions Right Inguinal region, Pubic region, Left inguinal region |
| Label the quadrants | Right upper quadrant (RUQ), Left upper quadrant (LUQ) Right lower quadrant, Left lower quadrant (LLQ) |
| Matter | Anything that takes up space and has mass. Matter is composed of elements. Solids, Liquids, and Gases are matter. |
| Elements | Simplest type of matter with certain chemical properties. 92 naturally occurring elements |
| Bases | Substances that release ions that can combine with hydrogen ions NAOH---> NA+ OH- |
| Chemical Bonds | Form when atoms combine with other atoms. Result from interactions between the electrons of the atoms |
| Acids | Electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water HCI---> H+ + CI- |
| Osmosis | Moves water from high to low concentration |
| Mass Number | The number of protons plus the number of neutrons in one atom. Electrons do not contribute to the mass of the atom because they are so light. |
| Atomic Number | Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of a specific element. Each element has a unique atomic number |
| pH Scale | Used as a shorthand for H+ ion concentration; based on the number of decimal places in the concentration -Acids have pH less then 7 -Bases have pH higher then 7 -pH 7 is neutral |
| Organic molecules | Contain C and H -Depending on type dissolve in either water or organic liquids -Water-soluble organic compounds do not release ions, and are non-electrolytes -Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids |
| Inorganic Compounds | Generally, do not contain C and H -Usually dissolve in water and dissociate, forming ions, and are electrolytes -Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts |
| 3 major parts of a cell | -Nucleus: genetic material, directs cell activities -Cytoplasm: organelles, with specific functions, suspended in a liquid, cytosol -Cell membrane: outer boundary of cell, maintains integrity of cel, selectively permeable, signal transduction, mainly lipids and proteins |
| Interphase | -Cell grows and maintains normal functions -Cell replicates DNA to prep for mitosis -Cell synthesizes organelles, membranes, and biochemicals to prep for cytokinesis -Phases: S(synthesis) phase: DNA replicated, G1 and G2 (growth/gap) phases: structures and other molecules are duplicated |
| Active Transport | Movement of substances across a membrane from region of lower concentration to region of higher concentration -Requires ATP energy -Ex: sugars, amino acids, Ca+2, H+ |
| Phases of Mitosis | -Prophase: can be seen on microscope -Metaphase: line up in middle of cell -Anaphase: pulled opposite directions -Telophase: chromosomes are elongated |
| Cell Cycle | Series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it forms until the time it divides Stages of Cell Cycle: -Interphase -Mitosis (division of nucleus) -Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) |
| Cytokinesis | -Cytoplasmic division -Begins during anaphase -Continues through Telophase |
| Stem cell | Can divide to form both stem cell and progenitor cell -Can differentiate as any of many cell types |
| Progenitor Cell | Can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells -Called a "committed cell" |
| Apoptosis | Planned programmed cell death |
| Necrosis | Cell death from damage -NOT a normal process |
| What does Anabolism do? | *ASSEMBLY Provides material for maintenance, cellular growth and repair; requires ATP made during catabolism -EX: dehydration synthesis: water released -Small molecules are built into larger ones |
| What does catabolism do? | *CRACKING Breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones; ATP is produced -EX: hydrolysis needs water, uses H2O to split substances |
| Enzymes | *MANAGER KEEPS THINGS RUNNING SMOOTH Control rates of both catabolic and anabolic reactions -Greatly increase reaction rate |
| Cofactor | *IMPORTANT COFACTOR: COENZYME Alters enzyme -Non protein substance that combines with the enzyme to activate it |
| Coenzyme | *A HELPER LIKE A DRILL THAT HAS DIFFERENT ATTACHMENTS Organic molecule that acts as cofactor -Most are vitamins |
| Denaturation | Inactivation of an enzyme (or any other protein), due to an irreversible change in its conformation -Results in enzyme being unable to bind to substrate |
| 3 Phases of glycolysis | 1. Phosphorylation of glucose (priming) 2. Splitting/Cleaving of glucose into two 3-carbon molecules (cleavage) 3. Production of NADH, ATP, and 2 molecules of Pyruvic Acid |
| Glycolysis | -First reaction sequence of glucose breakdown -HAPPENS IN CYTOSOL!! -Not a lot of energy produced but quick |
| Citric Acid Cycle | *WHEEL THAT SPINS TO EXTRACT ENERGY For each Citric Acid molecule: -1 ATP is produced -8 hydrogen atoms are transferred to NAD+ and FAD -2 CO2 are produced; enters blood and is exhaled |
| Electron Transport Chain | *MADE IN CITRIC ACID CYCLE A series of enzyme complexes (electron carriers) located in the inner membrane of mitochondria -H2O is formed (oxygen is final electron "carrier") -Summary of ATP production in complete oxidation of glucose: 2 ATP produced in glycolysis 2 ATP in Citric Acid Cycle 28 in ETC |
| DNA Replication | Process that produces an exact copy of a DNA molecule; occurs during interphase |
| ETC Process | 1) NADH and FADH2 deliver electrons (H+) 2) Electrons move through enzyme complexes, releasing energy 3) ATP synthase uses energy to make ATP 4)Oxygen is the final electron acceptor making H2O |
| Transcription | *HOW WE GET STUFF FROM NUCLEUS TO CYTOPLASM Process of copying DNA sequence onto an RNA sequence |
| Translation | Each amino acid is specified by a sequence of 3 bases in DNA, called Codons (triplet) -Process pf converting the genetic code, carried by mRNA, into a sequence of amino acids that become a protein |
| Messenger RNA (mRNA) | Type of RNA that carries genetic code from DNA to ribosome to cytoplasm |
| Transfer RNA (tRNA) | Aligns amino acids during translation, along the mRNA strand on the ribosome -Each tRNA contains a sequence of 3 nucleotide bases, the anticodon, which binds to the complementary codon on the mRNA strand |
| 4 Major types of tissues in the body | -Epithelial tissue: skin -Connective tissue: support -Muscle tissue: movement -Nervous tissue: communicates |
| Main function of epithelial tissue | Protection, secretion, absorption, excretion |
| What type of epithelial tissue lines respiratory passageways? | Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium -Single layer, but appears layered -Cells vary in shape -Often has cilia, goblet cells -Protect from infection |
| 3 Major cell types of connective tissue and their jobs | -Fibroblasts (builder of connective tissue): Secrete fibers into extracellular matrix -Macrophages (histiocytes): Security guard against connective tissue. Defend against infection -Mast cells (emergency responders): Release heparin to prevent blood clotting. Release histamine, which causes inflammatory response |
| Retic connective tissue | *NET-LIKE -Composed of network of thin reticular fibers -Supports walls of internal organs -Walls of liver, spleen |
| Dense Regular Connective Tissue | -Closely packed collagenous fibers -Most calls are fibroblasts -Fine network of elastic fibers -Very strong, withstands pulling -Binds body parts together -Tendons, ligaments, dermis -Poor blood supply; slow to heal |
| Elastic Connective Tissue | *LIKE BUNGEE CORD -Abundant yellow elastic fibers, and some collagenous fibers -Fibroblasts -Attachments between bones of spinal column -Walls of hollow organs, such as large arteries, airways -Parts of heart -Elastic quality, stretches |
| Dense Irregular Connective Tissue | *LIKE WOVEN FABRIC -Randomly organized, thick, interwoven collagenous fibers -Can withstand tension exerted from different directions -DERMIS OF SKIN!! (Like Indian burn) -Around skeletal muscles |
| Blood | *SOME DISEASES AFFECT SHAPE OF BLOOD CELLS -Formed elements (cells and fragments) suspended in fluid matrix called plasma -Types of formed elements: Red blood cells: transport gases White blood cells: defend against infection Platelets: help in blood clotting -Transports substances around body |
| Skeletal muscle tissue | -Attached to bones -Striated -Voluntary -Long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells -Stimulated by nerve cells |
| Smooth muscle tissue | -Non striated -Spindle-shaped fibers -Walls of hollow organs and blood vessels -Involuntary -EX: stomach |
| Cardiac muscle tissue | -Only in wall of heart -Branching cells -Involuntary -Striated -Intercalated discs, specialized intercellular junctions |
| What is the path of signal traveling from motor neuron to a skeletal muscle | Stimulus is received from the dendrites of the motor neuron---> down the axon---> then from axon to the muscle |
| Layers of the skin | -Epidermis: Outer layer, stratified squamous epithelium -Dermis: Inner layer, thicker than epidermis. Collagenous elastic fibers -Subcutaneous layer (Hypodermis): Beneath the dermis; insulating layer. Areolar and adipose tissue |
| Keratinocytes | Older cells, that begin to flatten and die -Found in epidermis |
| What does UV light do to darken the skin? | Causes melanocytes to produce more melanin, and skin darkens |
| What are the arrector pili muscles attached to? | Attached to hair follicle; contracts in response to cold or fear, and causes goosebumps |
| Eccrine glands (merocrine) | Consist of water, salts, wastes. -Responds to elevated body temp. |
| Apocrine sweat glands | Axillary and groin areas; open into hair follicles -Respond to emotions, pain |
| Skin cells function to produce what vitamin? | Vitamin D, which helps with calcium absorption |
| 4 Types of heat loss | *RECC -Radiation: Primary method. Infrared heat rays travel from warmer skin to cooler environment -Evaporation: Heat is lost through sweat as it evaporates, and carries heat away from the skin -Conduction: Heat moves from warmer skin to cooler objects it is in contact with -Convection: Heat loss from skin into circulating air currents |
| What is inflammation, how does it happen, and 4 ways the skin may appear when inflamed | -The body's attempt to restrict spread of infection -Blood vessels in affected tissues dilate and become more permeable, allowing fluids to leak into the damaged tissues -Skin may become: Reddened (rubor) Swollen (tumor) Warm (calor) Painful (dolor) |
| Rule of Nines | Divides body surface into regions of 9% or multiples of 9 -Used to eliminate extent of injured body surface from a burn for treatment |
| Functions of the skeletal system | -Support and protect softer tissues -Movement -Blood cell formation -Mineral storage |
| What is the definition of epiphysis, diaphysis, and metaphysis? | -Epiphysis: expanded end -Diaphysis: Bonde shaft -Metaphysis: Between epiphysis and diaphysis. Widening part |
| Intramembranous ossification | Flat skull bones, clavicles, sternum and some facial bones |
| Endochondral ossification | Long bones and most of skeleton |
| Where do parietal bones meet? | Sagittal suture |
| What bony feature holds the pituitary gland? | Sella Turcica |
| What makes up the pectoral girdle? | 2 clavicles and 2 scapulae |
| What is the Acetabulum? | Depression for head of femur |
| What type of fibrous joint involves a tooth and its root? | Gomphosis -Cone-shaped bony process in a socket |
| Types of Cartilaginous joints, examples of each, and amount of movement allowed | 2 types: Synchondrosis and Symphysis -Synchondrosis: Bands of hyaline cartilage. EX: epiphyseal plate. Synarthrotic -Symphysis: Pad of fibrocartilage between bones. EX: pubic symphysis. Amphiarthrotic (limited movement) |
| What reinforces a joint capsule? | Bundles of strong, tough collagen fibers, called ligaments |
| What type of synovial joint is found between the short bones in the ankle and wrist? | Plane joint (gliding joint) -Almost flat, slightlya curved -Back-and-forth and twisting |
| Origin | Relatively fixed end of a skeletal muscle |
| Insertion | More movable end of a skeletal muscle |
| Flexion | Bending of parts at a joint |
| Abduction | Moving part of body away from midline |
| Adduction | Moving a part of body toward midline |
| Lateral flexion | Bending to the side |
| Hyperextension | Extension beyond normal anatomical position |
| Extension | Straightening of parts at a joint |
| Major ligaments of the elbow joint | -Radial collateral ligament -Ulnar collateral ligament -Anular ligament |
| Layers of connective tissue in and closely surrounding a muscle | -Epimysium: Surround whole muscle, lies beneath fascia -Perimysium: Surrounds fascicles within a muscle -Endomysium: Surrounds muscle fibers(cells) within a fascicle |
| What do myofibrils consist of? | -Thin actin filaments and thick myosin filaments -Sarcomeres: units that connect end-to-end, to make up myofibrils |
| What happens at a neuromuscular junction (NMJ)? | Site where an exon of motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber interact |
| What is the function of creatine phosphate? | Initial source of energy to regenerate ATP from ADP and P -Stores energy in phosphate bond, like ATP |
| Types of muscle contractions | -Isotonic: muscle contracts and changes in length. Means "equal force". Has 2 types: concentric and eccentric -Isometric: muscle contracts but does not change length. Means "equal length" |
| Muscle fibers in terms of resistance to fatigue | -Slow-Twitch fibers (type l): resistant to fatigue -Fast-twitch fatigue resistant fibers (type lla): resistant to fatigue -Fast-twitch glycolytic fibers (type llb): susceptible to fatigue |
| Interaction of skeletal-A muscle | -Agonist: muscle that causes an action -Prime mover: agonist primarily responsible for movement -Synergists: muscles that assist agonist/prime mover -Antagonist: muscle whose contraction causes movement in the opposite direction of the prime mover |
| Which type of neuron is most commonly found in the CNS? | Multipolar neurons -Many dendrites, 1 axon |
| Which type of neuroglia produces myelin in CNS? | Oligodendrocytes |
| Depolarization | Change from negative to positive charge inside cell making both sides of membrane positive |
| Repolarization | Return to resting potential after action potential; occurs as K+ channels open and K+ ions rush out of cell; polarity returns |
| Hyperpolarization | Slight overshoot at end of repolarization, in which potential drops below -70mV for a moment before returning to -70 mV |
| Synapse | -A site at which a neuron transmits a nerve impulse to another neuron -Presynaptic neuron sends impulse -Postsynaptic neuron receives impulse -Synaptic cleft separates the 2 neurons |
| Acetylcholine in CNS | Controls skeletal muscle actions |
| What is the difference between convergence and divergence? | -Convergence: one neuron receives input from several neurons -Divergence: one neuron sends impulses to several neurons, via branching of its axon |
| Which lobe is responsible for vision? | Occipital lobe |
| Motor areas of the Cortex | -Primary Motor Areas (motor cortex): controls voluntary muscles -Broca's area: controls muscles needed for speech -Frontal eye field: controls voluntary movements of eyes and eyelids |
| What is the most common hemisphere dominance? | Left Hemisphere, which controls speech, reading, and writing |
| Meninges | Membranes that protect brain and spinal cord -Dura mater: outer layer, tough dense connective tissue -Arachnoid mater: middle layer, web-like contains CSF -Pia mater: inner layer, attached to surface of brain, spinal cord, contains blood vessels and nerves |
| Posterior portion (diencephalon): | -Spaces produced: third ventricle -Regions of the brain produced: thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland |
| What is the white and gray matter order in a cross section of spinal cord? | -White matter surrounds core of gray matter -Gray matter arranged in horns -White matter arranged in funiculi |
| Order for components of a reflex arc: | Neural pathway, consisting of a sensory receptor, 2 or more neurons, and an effector |
| What cranial nerves control motor movements of eyes muscles? | Oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens |
| General senses | Receptors that are widely distributed throughout the body -location: skin, various organs, and joints |
| Perception: | Occurs when brain interprets sensory impulses -EX: realizing that pain is a result of stepping on a tack |
| Special sense | Specialized receptors confined to structures in the head -location: eyes, ear, nose, and mouth |
| Sensory Adaptation | -Ability to ignore unimportant (or continuous) stimuli -When this occurs, sensory impulses become less frequent and may cease -Stronger stimulus is then required to trigger impulses -Best accomplished by thermoreceptors and olfactory receptors |
| Sensation | Occurs when action potentials make the brain aware of a sensory event -EX: awareness of pain |
| 3 Types of mechanoreceptors respond to touch and pressure | -Free Nerve endings: common in epithelial tissues, simplest receptors, sense itching and other sensations -Tactile corpuscles: abundant in hairless portions of skin and lips, detect fine touch and texture, distinguish between 2 points -Lamellated corpuscles: nerve endings encased in large ellipsoidal structures, common in deeper subcutaneous tissues, tendons, and ligaments, detect heavy pressure and vibrations |
| 5 Primary taste sensations: | -Sweet: stimulated by carbohydrates -Sour: stimulated by acids (H+) -Salty: Stimulated by salts (Na+ or K+) -Bitter: stimulated by many organic compounds, Mg and Ca salts Umami (savory, brothy, or meaty): stimulated by some amino acids, MSG |
| Auditory ossicles | 3 tiny bones -Malleus, Incus, Stapes |
| 3 layers of the eye: | -Outer (Fibrous) tunic: cornea and sclera -Middle (Vascular) tunic: choroid coat, ciliary body, iris Inner (Nervous) tunic: retina |
| Fovea Centralis | Center of macula lutea; produces sharpest vision |
| Rods vs. Cones | -Rods more sensitive to light than cones -Cones produce color vision |