Mediastinum

Region between lungs in thoracic cavity, which contains heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland

What muscle separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities?

Diaphragm

Levels of Organization

Subatomic Particles, Atom, Molecule, Macromolecule, Organelle, Cell, Tissue, Organ system, Organism

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions in a living system: energy production and nutrient cycling

Homeostasis

Maintenance of a stable internal environment

Cranial Cavity

Houses brain

Vertebral Canal (Spinal Cavity)

Contains Spinal cord

Thoracic cavity

Lungs and Thoracic viscera

Abdominopelvic cavity

Abdominal and Pelvic viscera

Stomach, Liver, Spleen, Kidneys, Small intestine, and most of large intestine are in what cavity?

Abdominal cavity

End of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs are in what cavity?

Pelvic cavity

Name the abdominal regions

Right Hypochondriac, Epigastric region, Left Hypochondriac region Right Lateral region, Umbilical region, Left lateral regions Right Inguinal region, Pubic region, Left inguinal region

Label the quadrants

Right upper quadrant (RUQ), Left upper quadrant (LUQ) Right lower quadrant, Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

Matter

Anything that takes up space and has mass. Matter is composed of elements. Solids, Liquids, and Gases are matter.

Elements

Simplest type of matter with certain chemical properties. 92 naturally occurring elements

Bases

Substances that release ions that can combine with hydrogen ions NAOH---> NA+ OH-

Chemical Bonds

Form when atoms combine with other atoms. Result from interactions between the electrons of the atoms

Acids

Electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water HCI---> H+ + CI-

Osmosis

Moves water from high to low concentration

Mass Number

The number of protons plus the number of neutrons in one atom. Electrons do not contribute to the mass of the atom because they are so light.

Atomic Number

Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of a specific element. Each element has a unique atomic number

pH Scale

Used as a shorthand for H+ ion concentration; based on the number of decimal places in the concentration -Acids have pH less then 7 -Bases have pH higher then 7 -pH 7 is neutral

Organic molecules

Contain C and H -Depending on type dissolve in either water or organic liquids -Water-soluble organic compounds do not release ions, and are non-electrolytes -Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

Inorganic Compounds

Generally, do not contain C and H -Usually dissolve in water and dissociate, forming ions, and are electrolytes -Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts

3 major parts of a cell

-Nucleus: genetic material, directs cell activities -Cytoplasm: organelles, with specific functions, suspended in a liquid, cytosol -Cell membrane: outer boundary of cell, maintains integrity of cel, selectively permeable, signal transduction, mainly lipids and proteins

Interphase

-Cell grows and maintains normal functions -Cell replicates DNA to prep for mitosis -Cell synthesizes organelles, membranes, and biochemicals to prep for cytokinesis -Phases: S(synthesis) phase: DNA replicated, G1 and G2 (growth/gap) phases: structures and other molecules are duplicated

Active Transport

Movement of substances across a membrane from region of lower concentration to region of higher concentration -Requires ATP energy -Ex: sugars, amino acids, Ca+2, H+

Phases of Mitosis

-Prophase: can be seen on microscope -Metaphase: line up in middle of cell -Anaphase: pulled opposite directions -Telophase: chromosomes are elongated

Cell Cycle

Series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it forms until the time it divides Stages of Cell Cycle: -Interphase -Mitosis (division of nucleus) -Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm)

Cytokinesis

-Cytoplasmic division -Begins during anaphase -Continues through Telophase

Stem cell

Can divide to form both stem cell and progenitor cell -Can differentiate as any of many cell types

Progenitor Cell

Can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells -Called a "committed cell"

Apoptosis

Planned programmed cell death

Necrosis

Cell death from damage -NOT a normal process

What does Anabolism do?

*ASSEMBLY Provides material for maintenance, cellular growth and repair; requires ATP made during catabolism -EX: dehydration synthesis: water released -Small molecules are built into larger ones

What does catabolism do?

*CRACKING Breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones; ATP is produced -EX: hydrolysis needs water, uses H2O to split substances

Enzymes

*MANAGER KEEPS THINGS RUNNING SMOOTH Control rates of both catabolic and anabolic reactions -Greatly increase reaction rate

Cofactor

*IMPORTANT COFACTOR: COENZYME Alters enzyme -Non protein substance that combines with the enzyme to activate it

Coenzyme

*A HELPER LIKE A DRILL THAT HAS DIFFERENT ATTACHMENTS Organic molecule that acts as cofactor -Most are vitamins

Denaturation

Inactivation of an enzyme (or any other protein), due to an irreversible change in its conformation -Results in enzyme being unable to bind to substrate

3 Phases of glycolysis

1. Phosphorylation of glucose (priming) 2. Splitting/Cleaving of glucose into two 3-carbon molecules (cleavage) 3. Production of NADH, ATP, and 2 molecules of Pyruvic Acid

Glycolysis

-First reaction sequence of glucose breakdown -HAPPENS IN CYTOSOL!! -Not a lot of energy produced but quick

Citric Acid Cycle

*WHEEL THAT SPINS TO EXTRACT ENERGY For each Citric Acid molecule: -1 ATP is produced -8 hydrogen atoms are transferred to NAD+ and FAD -2 CO2 are produced; enters blood and is exhaled

Electron Transport Chain

*MADE IN CITRIC ACID CYCLE A series of enzyme complexes (electron carriers) located in the inner membrane of mitochondria -H2O is formed (oxygen is final electron "carrier") -Summary of ATP production in complete oxidation of glucose: 2 ATP produced in glycolysis 2 ATP in Citric Acid Cycle 28 in ETC

DNA Replication

Process that produces an exact copy of a DNA molecule; occurs during interphase

ETC Process

1) NADH and FADH2 deliver electrons (H+) 2) Electrons move through enzyme complexes, releasing energy 3) ATP synthase uses energy to make ATP 4)Oxygen is the final electron acceptor making H2O

Transcription

*HOW WE GET STUFF FROM NUCLEUS TO CYTOPLASM Process of copying DNA sequence onto an RNA sequence

Translation

Each amino acid is specified by a sequence of 3 bases in DNA, called Codons (triplet) -Process pf converting the genetic code, carried by mRNA, into a sequence of amino acids that become a protein

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Type of RNA that carries genetic code from DNA to ribosome to cytoplasm

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Aligns amino acids during translation, along the mRNA strand on the ribosome -Each tRNA contains a sequence of 3 nucleotide bases, the anticodon, which binds to the complementary codon on the mRNA strand

4 Major types of tissues in the body

-Epithelial tissue: skin -Connective tissue: support -Muscle tissue: movement -Nervous tissue: communicates

Main function of epithelial tissue

Protection, secretion, absorption, excretion

What type of epithelial tissue lines respiratory passageways?

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium -Single layer, but appears layered -Cells vary in shape -Often has cilia, goblet cells -Protect from infection

3 Major cell types of connective tissue and their jobs

-Fibroblasts (builder of connective tissue): Secrete fibers into extracellular matrix -Macrophages (histiocytes): Security guard against connective tissue. Defend against infection -Mast cells (emergency responders): Release heparin to prevent blood clotting. Release histamine, which causes inflammatory response

Retic connective tissue

*NET-LIKE -Composed of network of thin reticular fibers -Supports walls of internal organs -Walls of liver, spleen

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

-Closely packed collagenous fibers -Most calls are fibroblasts -Fine network of elastic fibers -Very strong, withstands pulling -Binds body parts together -Tendons, ligaments, dermis -Poor blood supply; slow to heal

Elastic Connective Tissue

*LIKE BUNGEE CORD -Abundant yellow elastic fibers, and some collagenous fibers -Fibroblasts -Attachments between bones of spinal column -Walls of hollow organs, such as large arteries, airways -Parts of heart -Elastic quality, stretches

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

*LIKE WOVEN FABRIC -Randomly organized, thick, interwoven collagenous fibers -Can withstand tension exerted from different directions -DERMIS OF SKIN!! (Like Indian burn) -Around skeletal muscles

Blood

*SOME DISEASES AFFECT SHAPE OF BLOOD CELLS -Formed elements (cells and fragments) suspended in fluid matrix called plasma -Types of formed elements: Red blood cells: transport gases White blood cells: defend against infection Platelets: help in blood clotting -Transports substances around body

Skeletal muscle tissue

-Attached to bones -Striated -Voluntary -Long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells -Stimulated by nerve cells

Smooth muscle tissue

-Non striated -Spindle-shaped fibers -Walls of hollow organs and blood vessels -Involuntary -EX: stomach

Cardiac muscle tissue

-Only in wall of heart -Branching cells -Involuntary -Striated -Intercalated discs, specialized intercellular junctions

What is the path of signal traveling from motor neuron to a skeletal muscle

Stimulus is received from the dendrites of the motor neuron---> down the axon---> then from axon to the muscle

Layers of the skin

-Epidermis: Outer layer, stratified squamous epithelium -Dermis: Inner layer, thicker than epidermis. Collagenous elastic fibers -Subcutaneous layer (Hypodermis): Beneath the dermis; insulating layer. Areolar and adipose tissue

Keratinocytes

Older cells, that begin to flatten and die -Found in epidermis

What does UV light do to darken the skin?

Causes melanocytes to produce more melanin, and skin darkens

What are the arrector pili muscles attached to?

Attached to hair follicle; contracts in response to cold or fear, and causes goosebumps

Eccrine glands (merocrine)

Consist of water, salts, wastes. -Responds to elevated body temp.

Apocrine sweat glands

Axillary and groin areas; open into hair follicles -Respond to emotions, pain

Skin cells function to produce what vitamin?

Vitamin D, which helps with calcium absorption

4 Types of heat loss

*RECC -Radiation: Primary method. Infrared heat rays travel from warmer skin to cooler environment -Evaporation: Heat is lost through sweat as it evaporates, and carries heat away from the skin -Conduction: Heat moves from warmer skin to cooler objects it is in contact with -Convection: Heat loss from skin into circulating air currents

What is inflammation, how does it happen, and 4 ways the skin may appear when inflamed

-The body's attempt to restrict spread of infection -Blood vessels in affected tissues dilate and become more permeable, allowing fluids to leak into the damaged tissues -Skin may become: Reddened (rubor) Swollen (tumor) Warm (calor) Painful (dolor)

Rule of Nines

Divides body surface into regions of 9% or multiples of 9 -Used to eliminate extent of injured body surface from a burn for treatment

Functions of the skeletal system

-Support and protect softer tissues -Movement -Blood cell formation -Mineral storage

What is the definition of epiphysis, diaphysis, and metaphysis?

-Epiphysis: expanded end -Diaphysis: Bonde shaft -Metaphysis: Between epiphysis and diaphysis. Widening part

Intramembranous ossification

Flat skull bones, clavicles, sternum and some facial bones

Endochondral ossification

Long bones and most of skeleton

Where do parietal bones meet?

Sagittal suture

What bony feature holds the pituitary gland?

Sella Turcica

What makes up the pectoral girdle?

2 clavicles and 2 scapulae

What is the Acetabulum?

Depression for head of femur

What type of fibrous joint involves a tooth and its root?

Gomphosis -Cone-shaped bony process in a socket

Types of Cartilaginous joints, examples of each, and amount of movement allowed

2 types: Synchondrosis and Symphysis -Synchondrosis: Bands of hyaline cartilage. EX: epiphyseal plate. Synarthrotic -Symphysis: Pad of fibrocartilage between bones. EX: pubic symphysis. Amphiarthrotic (limited movement)

What reinforces a joint capsule?

Bundles of strong, tough collagen fibers, called ligaments

What type of synovial joint is found between the short bones in the ankle and wrist?

Plane joint (gliding joint) -Almost flat, slightlya curved -Back-and-forth and twisting

Origin

Relatively fixed end of a skeletal muscle

Insertion

More movable end of a skeletal muscle

Flexion

Bending of parts at a joint

Abduction

Moving part of body away from midline

Adduction

Moving a part of body toward midline

Lateral flexion

Bending to the side

Hyperextension

Extension beyond normal anatomical position

Extension

Straightening of parts at a joint

Major ligaments of the elbow joint

-Radial collateral ligament -Ulnar collateral ligament -Anular ligament

Layers of connective tissue in and closely surrounding a muscle

-Epimysium: Surround whole muscle, lies beneath fascia -Perimysium: Surrounds fascicles within a muscle -Endomysium: Surrounds muscle fibers(cells) within a fascicle

What do myofibrils consist of?

-Thin actin filaments and thick myosin filaments -Sarcomeres: units that connect end-to-end, to make up myofibrils

What happens at a neuromuscular junction (NMJ)?

Site where an exon of motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber interact

What is the function of creatine phosphate?

Initial source of energy to regenerate ATP from ADP and P -Stores energy in phosphate bond, like ATP

Types of muscle contractions

-Isotonic: muscle contracts and changes in length. Means "equal force". Has 2 types: concentric and eccentric -Isometric: muscle contracts but does not change length. Means "equal length"

Muscle fibers in terms of resistance to fatigue

-Slow-Twitch fibers (type l): resistant to fatigue -Fast-twitch fatigue resistant fibers (type lla): resistant to fatigue -Fast-twitch glycolytic fibers (type llb): susceptible to fatigue

Interaction of skeletal-A muscle

-Agonist: muscle that causes an action -Prime mover: agonist primarily responsible for movement -Synergists: muscles that assist agonist/prime mover -Antagonist: muscle whose contraction causes movement in the opposite direction of the prime mover

Which type of neuron is most commonly found in the CNS?

Multipolar neurons -Many dendrites, 1 axon

Which type of neuroglia produces myelin in CNS?

Oligodendrocytes

Depolarization

Change from negative to positive charge inside cell making both sides of membrane positive

Repolarization

Return to resting potential after action potential; occurs as K+ channels open and K+ ions rush out of cell; polarity returns

Hyperpolarization

Slight overshoot at end of repolarization, in which potential drops below -70mV for a moment before returning to -70 mV

Synapse

-A site at which a neuron transmits a nerve impulse to another neuron -Presynaptic neuron sends impulse -Postsynaptic neuron receives impulse -Synaptic cleft separates the 2 neurons

Acetylcholine in CNS

Controls skeletal muscle actions

What is the difference between convergence and divergence?

-Convergence: one neuron receives input from several neurons -Divergence: one neuron sends impulses to several neurons, via branching of its axon

Which lobe is responsible for vision?

Occipital lobe

Motor areas of the Cortex

-Primary Motor Areas (motor cortex): controls voluntary muscles -Broca's area: controls muscles needed for speech -Frontal eye field: controls voluntary movements of eyes and eyelids

What is the most common hemisphere dominance?

Left Hemisphere, which controls speech, reading, and writing

Meninges

Membranes that protect brain and spinal cord -Dura mater: outer layer, tough dense connective tissue -Arachnoid mater: middle layer, web-like contains CSF -Pia mater: inner layer, attached to surface of brain, spinal cord, contains blood vessels and nerves

Posterior portion (diencephalon):

-Spaces produced: third ventricle -Regions of the brain produced: thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland

What is the white and gray matter order in a cross section of spinal cord?

-White matter surrounds core of gray matter -Gray matter arranged in horns -White matter arranged in funiculi

Order for components of a reflex arc:

Neural pathway, consisting of a sensory receptor, 2 or more neurons, and an effector

What cranial nerves control motor movements of eyes muscles?

Oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens

General senses

Receptors that are widely distributed throughout the body -location: skin, various organs, and joints

Perception:

Occurs when brain interprets sensory impulses -EX: realizing that pain is a result of stepping on a tack

Special sense

Specialized receptors confined to structures in the head -location: eyes, ear, nose, and mouth

Sensory Adaptation

-Ability to ignore unimportant (or continuous) stimuli -When this occurs, sensory impulses become less frequent and may cease -Stronger stimulus is then required to trigger impulses -Best accomplished by thermoreceptors and olfactory receptors

Sensation

Occurs when action potentials make the brain aware of a sensory event -EX: awareness of pain

3 Types of mechanoreceptors respond to touch and pressure

-Free Nerve endings: common in epithelial tissues, simplest receptors, sense itching and other sensations -Tactile corpuscles: abundant in hairless portions of skin and lips, detect fine touch and texture, distinguish between 2 points -Lamellated corpuscles: nerve endings encased in large ellipsoidal structures, common in deeper subcutaneous tissues, tendons, and ligaments, detect heavy pressure and vibrations

5 Primary taste sensations:

-Sweet: stimulated by carbohydrates -Sour: stimulated by acids (H+) -Salty: Stimulated by salts (Na+ or K+) -Bitter: stimulated by many organic compounds, Mg and Ca salts Umami (savory, brothy, or meaty): stimulated by some amino acids, MSG

Auditory ossicles

3 tiny bones -Malleus, Incus, Stapes

3 layers of the eye:

-Outer (Fibrous) tunic: cornea and sclera -Middle (Vascular) tunic: choroid coat, ciliary body, iris Inner (Nervous) tunic: retina

Fovea Centralis

Center of macula lutea; produces sharpest vision

Rods vs. Cones

-Rods more sensitive to light than cones -Cones produce color vision