As with this guide and all other guides, the material on the test may cover some items

not listed below; however, it is covered in the textbook reading or class videos.

It is imperative that you read the textbook!

CHAPTER 1

• What is psychology? It is the scientific discipline that studies behavior and

mental processes.

• What are the beliefs of Structuralism? Functionalism? Behaviorism?

Structuralism- The school of psychology that attempts to understand the

structure of the mind by breaking it down into its component parts.

Functionalism- The school of psychology that focuses on the adaptive functions

of behavior. Behaviorism- The school of psychology that holds that psychology

should limit itself to the study of overt, observable behavior.

• Know researchers associated with each of the above schools of thought – Wundt,

James, Skinner, Watson. Wundt, Titchener, and hall (Structuralism). James

(Functionalism) Skinner and Watson (Behavoris,).

• Know the basic characteristic(s) of the various perspectives of psychology

and what individuals (if any) are associated with each school:

o Cognitive School – Focuses on the processes by which we acquire

knowledge.

o Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic School – Sigmund Freud. The view that

behavior is influenced by the struggle between unconscious sexual or

aggressive impulses and opposing forces that try to keep this threatening

material out of consciousness.

o Gestalt Psychology – Max Wertheimer. Holds that the brain structures our

perceptions of the world in terms of meaningful patterns or wholes (the

train).

o Positive Psychology - Martin Seligman. Emphasizes the study of human

virtues and assets rather than weaknesses and deficits.

o Evolutionary Psychology – It bases it thoughts from Charles Darwin’s

evolutionary principles. Focuses on the role of evolutionary processes in

shaping behavior. Behavior may be rooted in your genes.

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY ONLINE TEST 1 STUDY GUIDE (CH. 1-2, 4)

o Behavioral Perspective – Grounded in the tradition of Watson and

Skinner. Focuses on the role of learning and importance of environmental

influences in explaining behavior.

o Humanistic Perspective – Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers – Believes

that free will and conscious choice are essential aspects of the human

experience.

o Physiological Perspective – Focuses on the relationships between

biological processes and behavior.

o Sociocultural Perspective – Emphasizes the role of social and cultural

influences on behavior.

o Eclectic Approach to Psychology – One that seeks to synthesize or

integrate an overarching view that draws upon different perspectives.

• What are the scientific method steps (know in order and how to apply them) 1.

Developing a research question. Drawing on theory, observations, experiences, or

common beliefs to formulate a researchable question. 2. Forming a hypothesis.

Reframing the question so that it becomes a specific prediction that can be tested

through research. 3. Gathering evidence - testing the hypothesis. 4. Drawing

conclusions. Using statistical methods of analysis to determine whether the data

support the hypothesis.

• Be familiar with the following research methods: Case study- draws information

from interviews, observations, or written records. Correlational Study – How

variables are related to each other but cannot determine cause and effect

relationships. Survey method – Information from structured interviews or

questionnaires. Experimental method – explore cause and effect relationships.

Naturalistic Study – Directly observes in the natural habitat or environment.

Laboratory Research - Research in a controlled environment where scientists can

manage variables and conditions.(know the characteristics of each)

• What is the difference between a positive and negative correlation? Positive

correlation means that as one variable increases the other one does too or vice

versa. Negative correlation mean that variables move in opposite directions.

• In the experimental method, what are independent and dependent variables (be

able to identify examples of each in a scenario)? Independent – variables that

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY ONLINE TEST 1 STUDY GUIDE (CH. 1-2, 4)

manipulated in and experiment (Popularity of female names). Dependent – the

effects or outcomes of an experiment that are believed to be dependent on the

values of the independent variables(ratings of attractiveness).

• Experimental and control groups: define purpose and give an example of each

Experimental- the group that receives the treatment, condition, or variable

being tested (effects of alcohol group would receive a dose of alcohol). Control –

Groups or participants in a research experiment who do not receive the

experimental treatment or intervention. (this group would not receive alcohol,

but maybe a placebo).

• Know the terms bias- People may have a preconceived idea of what they expect to

see that is what they will see. double blind experiment – Studies in which both

participants and experimenters are kept uninformed about which participants

are receiving that active drug and which are receiving the placebo. placebo effect – Positive outcomes of an experiment resulting from a participants positive

expectations about the treatment rather than from the treatment itself. social

desirability – The tendency to respond to questions in a sociably desirable

manner. volunteer bias – The type of bias that arises when people who volunteer

to participate in a survey or research study have characteristics that make them

unrepresentative of the population from which they were drawn. Replication –

The attempt to replicate findings.

Chapter 2

• What is the difference between the phenotype and the genotype of a human?

Genes inherited from parents and the physical expression from the genotype and

environment.

• What is a nerve? A bundle of axons from different neurons that transmit nerve

impulses.

• What are the parts and functions of the neuron? Nerve cells.

• Dendrite - Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons.

Carry signals toward the cell body. Soma – Cell body containing the nucleus.

Performs metabolic, or life sustaining, functions of the cell. Axon – Long cable

projecting from the soma. Carries neural impulses to the terminal buttons.

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY ONLINE TEST 1 STUDY GUIDE (CH. 1-2, 4)

myelin sheath – A layer of protective insulation that covers the axons of certain

neurons and helps speed transmission of nerve impulses. Synapse – The tiny gap

that separates one neuron from another and serves as a connection point between

neurons. terminal buttons - Swellings at ends of axons. They release chemical,

called neurotransmitters that carry messages to other neurons– definition and

purpose

• Neurotransmitters – what do they do? How do they travel? They transport nerve

impulses from one nerve to another. They travel through action potential which

hit the terminal buttons make cross the synaptic cross and bind to the receptors

of another neuron.

o Types (Dopamine, Endorphin, Acetylcholine, etc. – what do they affect?

Dopamine – controls muscle contractions, processes of learning and

memory, feelings of pleasure, and bonding and caring. Glutamate - Keeps

the central nervous system aroused and is also involved in hearing. GABA – tones down the central nervous system. Serotonin – Regulation of mood

states, feeling full, sleep, and processes that curb impulsive behaviors.

Endorphins – Help deaden pain.

o Agonist and Antagonist (understand examples) Antagonist – drugs or

chemicals that block the actions of neurotransmitters by occupying their

receptor cites. Agonist - Drugs that either increase the availability or

effectiveness of neurotransmitters or mimic their actions.

• What are glial cells? Small but numerous cells in the nervous system that support

neurons and that form the myelin sheath found on many axons.

• What is an action potential? An abrupt change from a negative to a positive

charge of a cell, also called neural impulse.

• What is the all-or-none principle? A neuron will fire completely (generate an

action protentional) if sufficient stimulation is available, or it will not fire; there is

no halfway point.

• Know the components and function of the Central Nervous System & Peripheral

Nervous System.

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY ONLINE TEST 1 STUDY GUIDE (CH. 1-2, 4)

• Autonomic Nervous System-how does it work and what does it do? The part of

the peripheral nervous system that automatically regulates involuntary bodily

processes, such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion, and dilation of the pupils.

o Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems-What do they do?

Sympathetic – speeds up bodily processes and draws energy from stored

reserves. It serves as an alarm, speeding up heart rate and breathing rate.

Parasympathetic – Fosters body functions like digestion, that replenishes

stores of energy. It slows down heart rate it is the relaxed state.

• Somatic Nervous System - how does it work and what does it do? It is composed

of sensory and motor neurons. Transmits information between the central

nervous system and the sensory organs and muscles. It also controls voluntary

movements.

• Hindbrain

o Medulla – Conveys sensory information from the spinal cord to the

forebrain; control of basic bodily processes including heart rate, breathing,

and certain reflexes.

o Pons – Coveys sensory information from the spinal cord to the forebrain;

regulation of states of wakefulness and sleep.

o Cerebellum – Regulation of balance and coordination.

• Midbrain

o Reticular Activating System – Regulation of attentional processes and

states of alertness and arousal.

o Brain Stem – The “stalk” in the lower part of the brain that connects the

spinal cord to higher regions of the brain.

• Forebrain

o Hypothalamus – Helps regulate temperature, reproduction, emotional

states, aggression, hunger, thirst, sleep cycles, triggers hormonal release.

and responses to stress.

o Thalamus – Serves as a relay station for sensory information and that

plays a key role in regulating states of wakefulness and sleep.

o Limbic System – A formation of structures in the forebrain. It plays

important roles in both memory and emotional processing.

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY ONLINE TEST 1 STUDY GUIDE (CH. 1-2, 4)

o Hippocampus – Resembles a seahorse. Plays an important role in the

formation of new memories.

o Amygdala – Almond. Triggers the emotional response of fear when we

encounter a threatening stimulus or situation.

o Cerebral Cortex- Forms the thin, outer layer of the cerebrum. Accounts for

more 80 percent of the brain’s mass.

o Cerebrum – The largest mass of the forebrain, consisting of two cerebral

hemispheres.

▪ Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex – What is the function of each?

Occipital Lobes - process visual information. Parietal lobes –

process sensory information received from receptors in the skin,

giving rise to our experience of touch, pressure, temperature, and

pain. Frontal lobes – they access the memories, mull things over,

self-awareness, store information, motor control movements of the

hands, solve problems, carry out coordinated actions, make

decisions, plan actions, and weigh evidence. Temporal lobes – They

are involved in auditory stimuli.

▪ Corpus Callosum – A bundle of nerves that connects the two

hemispheres and forms a pathway by which the share information

and communicate with each other.

• Right vs. Left Hemisphere – what are they generally responsible for? Is it correct

to say that people are “right-brained” or “left-brained”? No, because the brain

works together as a whole function. Messages go back and forth between the two

hemispheres. Left Hemisphere – Language functions, Logical analysis, problem

solving, and mathematical computations. Right Hemisphere – Nonverbal

processing piecing together puzzles, reading maps, arranging blocks to match

designs, recognizes faces, interpreting facial and gestures, and expresses

emotion.

• What is lateralization? The specialization of the right and left cerebral

hemispheres for particular functions.

• What is plasticity of the brain? The ability of the brain to adapt itself after trauma

or surgical alteration.

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY ONLINE TEST 1 STUDY GUIDE (CH. 1-2, 4)

• Endocrine System – how does it work and what does each gland do? It relies on

hormones to communicate it messages to organs and other bodily tissues. It

helps the body maintain homeostasis. Pituitary gland – stimulates growth,

especially of bones. Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete cortical steroids.

Stimulates uterine contraction during childbirth and release of milk following

childbirth. Through the hormones Growth hormone, ACTH, and oxytocin.

Hypothalamus – Stimulates the pituitary to release other hormones including the

growth hormone. Pineal gland – helps regulate sleep/wake cycles through the

release of melatonin. Pancreas – helps blood glucose get into cells which is

involved in regulation of blood sugar levels through the hormone insulin. Thyroid

gland – Through the thyroid hormones it regulates metabolic rate, growth, and

maturation. Adrenal glands – Helps the body cope with stress, promotes muscle

development, stimulates the live to release stores of sugar, and speeds up

processes, such as heart rate and breathing rate. Cortical steroids, epinephrine

and norepinephrine. Ovaries – helps regulate menstrual cycle (Estrogen) and

keep pregnancy (Progesterone). Testes.

• What are hormones? How do they travel within the body? Hormones travel

through the bloodstream system to their destinations. They work like

neurotransmitters in that they lock into receptor sites to trigger changes in these

cells.

CHAPTER 4

• What are the three states of consciousness? Be able to identify and cite examples.

1. Focused awareness – A state in which one is fully absorbed in the task at hand.

(Learning a new skill or taking and studying for an exam). 2. Drifting

consciousness- mind wandering or daydreaming not considered to be a happy

mind (routine experiences of daily life). 3. Divided consciousness- occurs when

we simultaneously perform two different activities, each of which demands some

level of attention (driving and carrying on a conversation).

• What are the components of the sleep cycle? How long is each sleep cycle? 90

minutes. Stage 1 people may not even realize that they were sleeping – small,

irregular brain waves stage two happens two minutes after stage 1. Stage 2 deep

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY ONLINE TEST 1 STUDY GUIDE (CH. 1-2, 4)

sleep but can be readily wakened – sleep spindles - people speed half of their

sleep in this stage. Stage ¾ delta waves – it is difficult to waken a person - they

are differentiated based on the proportion of delta waves.

• What is REM sleep? What are beta/alpha/delta waves? Rapid Eye Movement

Sleep. Four to Five sleep cycles a night. The dreaming stage. Beta waves- fast low

amplitude happen when you are awake and alert. Alpha waves – Slower rhythmic

cycles happen during relaxed wakefulness. Delta waves – Happen in stage 3 and

4 of sleep – large slow brain waves.

• Why do we sleep – what is the physiological purpose? It has maybe a protection

function, conserves body energy, helps the brain restore itself and recover from

daily wear and tear, Rem sleep play important roles in memory consolidation.

• What is the circadian rhythm? The pattern of fluctuations in bodily processes that

occur regularly each day. Body temperatures, hormonal secretions, blood

pressure, and heart rate fluctuate daily.

• What are the various hypotheses surrounding why we dream? Be familiar with

when we dream (what stage), the activation-synthesis theory and other possible

theories. Rem sleep is when we dream. No one really knows for sure why we

dream. It could help us work through possible solutions to everyday crisis.

Activation synthesis – dreams represent an attempt by the cerebral cortex to

make sense of random discharges of electricity activity in the brain during REM

sleep. Wish fulfillment by Freud.

• What is the difference between manifest and latent content of dreams, according

to Freud? Manifest content is what actually occurs in your dream. Latent content

is the underlying meaning of a dream disguised in the form of dream symbols. It

helps you sleep by preventing you from knowing real threatening meaning.

• What is a lucid dream? It is a dream where the person is aware that he or she is

dreaming. Some believe that they can direct the action of their dreams.

• Be familiar with the various sleep disorders: nightmare, sleep terror, sleep

walking, sleep apnea, etc.). Know the characteristics of each. Insomnia –

difficulty falling, remaining, and returning back to sleep. Narcolepsy – Sleep

attacks – Frightening hallucinations. Apnea – Stop breathing during sleep.

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY ONLINE TEST 1 STUDY GUIDE (CH. 1-2, 4)

Nightmare disorder – disturbing nightmares. Sleep terror disorder - starts with a

loud panicky scream. Sleepwalking – eyes open, but asleep.

• What are the effects of sleep deprivation? Impaired memory, concentration,

attention, problem solving, driver drowsiness, common cold susceptibility,

impulsive behavior, waistline growth, and mistakes in tasks.

• What is hypnosis? An altered state of consciousness characterized by focused

attention, deep relaxation, and heightened susceptibility to suggestion.

• What is meditation? A process of focused attention that induces a relaxed,

contemplative state.

• Drug Terms

o Abuse – Maladaptive or dangerous use of a chemical substance.

o Dependence – A severe drug-related problem characterized by impaired

control over the use of the drug.

o Tolerance – A form of physical habituation to a drug in which increased

amounts are needed to achieve the same effect.

o Withdrawal – A cluster of symptoms associated with abrupt withdrawal

from a drug.

o Addiction – Drug dependence accompanies by signs of physiological

dependence, such as the development of a withdrawal syndrome.

• Psychoactive drugs – know the most widely used of each

o Depressants – Alcohol, Barbiturates, tranquilizers, opioids (narcotics).

They slow down the bodies central nervous system like heart rate and

respiration rate.

o Stimulants – Amphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, and

caffeine. These are drugs that heighten the activity of the nervous system.

(Side affects loss of appetite, headaches, increased blood pressure, dry

mouth, and difficulty falling asleep.)

o Hallucinogens – LSD, Mescaline, Psilocybin, and PCP, Marijuana. They

alter sensory perceptions, producing distortions or hallucinations in

visual, auditory, and other sensory forms.

• What are the effects of alcohol abuse? Impaired driving, clouds judgment,

inability to weigh the consequences of behavior, unsafe sex, rape, assault,

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY ONLINE TEST 1 STUDY GUIDE (CH. 1-2, 4)

robbery, homicide, can damage nearly every major organ and body system, lower

grades and death.

• What is the difference between psychological and physiological dependence on

drugs? Psychological dependence is when the body uses drugs as an escape it

becomes a habit. Physiological dependence is when the body is altered through