What’s the “ghost in the machine” idea called?

Dualism

Why do psychologists/neuroscientists reject dualism as a scientific theory?

It doesn’t explain how mind affects body (no testable mechanism) and has weak explanatory power.

What’s the key brain structure cut in split-brain surgery?

Corpus callosum.

Why was split-brain surgery originally done?

To reduce severe seizures (epilepsy).

What’s a wild “side effect” split-brain patients can report?

The left hand/left side feels like it acts on its own.

What term means some functions are more on one hemisphere than the other?

Hemispheric specialization.

Two main components of consciousness are…

State (level of arousal/wakefulness) + content (subjective experience/thoughts/perceptions).

What brain system is heavily involved in consciousness “state” (arousal/attention level)?

Ascending reticular activating system.

Conscious “content” means what, in simple terms?

What you’re aware of (the inner movie: sensations, thoughts, memories, emotions).

The Cambridge Declaration of Consciousness basically said what?

Many animals have the brain substrates needed for conscious experience.

According to that declaration, which groups clearly have those substrates?

All mammals and birds (and others like octopuses).

How do researchers test “conscious-like” content in animals (general idea)?

See if they can use memory/tools to solve new problems (flexible problem-solving).

What animal example was used as especially impressive?

Crows (tool use, problem-solving, social info sharing).

What happened to H.M. after hippocampus-related surgery?

Couldn’t form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia).

What did Phineas Gage’s frontal lobe damage change?

Personality/behavior control.

In split-brain, why might someone not be able to name something seen in the left visual field?

Left visual field → right hemisphere, and the message can’t cross to left-hemisphere language areas.

But why can they still draw the object with the left hand?

Left hand is controlled by the right hemisphere that “saw” it.

What’s attention?

Selecting info (internal/external) to prioritize for processing.

Passive (bottom-up) attention is triggered by what?

Something in the environment grabs you automatically (like a loud bang).

Active (top-down) attention is driven by what?

Your goals (like searching for your keys).

Selective attention means…

Focus on one stream while ignoring others.

Divided attention means…

Trying to do multiple tasks at once (multitasking).

What’s “stimulus salience”?

Bottom-up features that pop out (brightness, loudness, contrast).

When a salient stimulus yanks your attention away, that’s called…

Attentional capture.

What’s automaticity?

Fast, effortless processing that doesn’t need conscious focus.

Why is texting/driving worse than people think (attention-wise)?

Driving needs rapid reaction to unexpected events; attention gets hijacked.

What did research suggest about phone use and crash risk?

Much higher risk (often cited as ~4x).

Inattentional blindness is when…

You miss obvious stuff because attention is locked onto something else.

Change detection/flicker task shows what?

Even when you know a change is coming, you can struggle to spot it.

Visual neglect is usually caused by damage to what region?

Right inferior parietal lobe.

Visual neglect looks like what in real life?

Ignoring left side of space (eat half plate, shave half face, draw half objects).

Do neglect patients usually realize they’re missing the left side?

Often no (lack of awareness).

Neglect patients can still be influenced by “unseen” info—example?

Choose the house not on fire even if they can’t explain why.

ADHD stands for

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Core ADHD symptom pattern?

Inattention + hyperactivity/impulsivity that impairs functioning.

ADHD isn’t just being distracted sometimes because…

Diagnosis requires severity + persistence + impairment.

ADHD has strong links to what (cause-wise)?

Genetics (high heritability estimates).

ADHD symptoms resemble damage to what brain area?

Prefrontal cortex (attention/impulse control).

Common meds mentioned for ADHD?

Ritalin, Adderall.

Why do those meds get abused on campuses?

They can increase focus even in people without ADHD.

What’s sleep hygiene?

Habits/behaviors that help you sleep well.

Recommended adult sleep range in the chapter?

7–9 hours.

Two main measurement tools in a sleep lab?

EEG (brain waves) + EOG (eye movement) + EMG (muscle tone) (know these three).

Fitness trackers estimate sleep using what sensors (basic idea)?

Movement (accelerometer) + heart/HRV (PPG) + algorithms.

Awake + focused brain waves are typically…

Beta (low amplitude, irregular/desynchronized).

Awake but relaxed brain waves are…

Alpha (more regular).

Stage 1 (NREM1) is associated with…

Theta waves (3.5–7.5 Hz) and very light sleep.

In NREM1, if awakened, people often say…

“I wasn’t asleep.”

Stage 2 (NREM2) is identified by what two features?

Sleep spindles + K-complexes.

Sleep spindles are thought to help with…

Memory consolidation.

K-complexes do what (simple)?

Big bursts that can be triggered by noise; help transition toward deeper sleep.

Sleep spindles are thought to help with…

Memory consolidation.

K-complexes do what (simple)?

Big bursts that can be triggered by noise; help transition toward deeper sleep.

Deepest sleep stage in this chapter?

NREM3 (slow-wave sleep / SWS).

NREM3 brain waves are…

NREM3 brain waves are…

Why do long naps often make you feel gross?

You wake from slow-wave sleep (sleep inertia).

Best nap length to feel refreshed (from the text)?

20 minutes (mostly Stage 2).

REM sleep stands for

Rapid Eye Movement.

REM EEG looks like…

More like awake (desynchronized, beta-like).

REM atonia means…

Your body is temporarily paralyzed so you don’t act out dreams.

REM is when you get the most…

Vivid, story-like dreams.

Across the night, you generally get…

Less deep sleep, more REM later.

One big physical function of slow-wave sleep?

Restoration/repair (growth hormone, immune support, tissue repair).

Slow-wave sleep helps fight infection by boosting what?

Cytokines / immune function.

What brain “cleaning” process is emphasized during deep sleep?

CSF flow / waste clearance (glymphatic-like clearing).

Sleep helps memory by moving new info from where to where?

Hippocampus (“inbox”) → neocortex (“filing cabinet”).

REM is especially important for development because…

Babies spend ~50% of sleep in REM; supports neural development.

Synaptic pruning means…

Strengthen important connections, eliminate weaker/unused ones.

REM helps teens particularly with what big life area?

Brain reorganization + emotional regulation.

Sleep deprivation is called a public health issue by what org?

CDC

Effects of one bad night include…

Worse attention/decision-making, mood irritability, immune suppression.

Randy Gardner stayed awake how long?

264.4 hours (~11 days).

Extreme sleep deprivation can cause…

Hallucinations, paranoia, memory issues, major cognitive decline.

Daylight saving “spring forward” can increase what health event soon after?

Heart attacks (spike reported the Monday after).

Chronic sleep deprivation is linked to what long-term risks?

Obesity, Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular issues, dementia/Alzheimer’s risk, mood disorders.

Hormones affected by sleep loss that drive appetite?

Ghrelin ↑ (hunger), leptin ↓ (satiety).

Chronic sleep loss increases diabetes risk partly by causing…

Insulin resistance / impaired glucose regulation.

Sleep normally lowers blood pressure at night; that dip is called…

Dipping

Lack of dipping leads to…

More hypertension risk.

Why does poor sleep connect to Alzheimer’s in this chapter?

Less deep sleep → less waste clearance (beta-amyloid buildup risk).

Insomnia definition?

Trouble falling asleep and/or staying asleep.

Conditioned insomnia is when

Bed becomes associated with stress/wakefulness, making it self-reinforcing.

Idiopathic insomnia is basically…

Child-onset insomnia tied to neurophysiology; harder to treat.

Best-supported insomnia treatment mentioned?

CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy) + sleep hygiene.

One key sleep hygiene rule about schedules?

Same sleep/wake time every day (even weekends).

Ideal sleep environment (3 words)?

Dark, quiet, cool.

Caffeine timing rule from sleep hygiene?

Avoid after noon / later day (limit stimulants).

Alcohol helps you fall asleep but later does what?

Worsens sleep quality/disrupts sleep.

Psychoactive drugs definition?

Substances that influence mood, thoughts, or behavior.

Tolerance means

Need more of a drug to get the same effect

Dependence means

Need the drug to function “normally” (physical/psychological)

Withdrawal means…

Negative symptoms when the drug is absent.

Three big drug categories in this chapter?

Depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens.

Alcohol is a…

Depressant.

Alcohol increases the effectiveness of what calming neurotransmitter?

GABA

Alcohol inhibits what excitatory neurotransmitter (esp. hippocampus)?

Glutamate

Why can heavy drinking lead to fragmented memories?

Hippocampus/learning systems get disrupted (glutamate/other effects).

Barbiturates/benzodiazepines work largely through

Increasing GABA effects.

Why are barbiturates especially dangerous long-term?

Tolerance rises but lethal dose doesn’t change much (overdose risk).

Examples of benzodiazepines mentioned?

Xanax, Valium, Clonazepam.

Stimulants generally do what to the nervous system?

Increase activity/arousal.

Most widely used psychoactive drug in the world?

Caffeine.

Caffeine mainly works by blocking…

Adenosine receptors (adenosine is inhibitory/sleepy signal).

Nicotine is a stimulant and is extremely…

Addictive

Nicotine boosts which “attention/learning” neurotransmitter release?

Acetylcholine (plus dopamine).

Why is smoking/nicotine addiction strengthened by delivery method?

Fast brain effects after inhalation = higher addiction risk.

Cocaine increases dopamine by…

Blocking dopamine reuptake.

Amphetamines increase dopamine by…

Blocking reuptake and increasing release.

Chronic stimulant use can lead to what severe mental symptoms?

Hallucinations, paranoia, psychosis-like behavior.

Hallucinogens (psychedelics) mainly distort…

Perception of reality (time/space; can cause synesthesia).

LSD acts as an agonist mainly on which neurotransmitter system?

Serotonin (notably receptors linked to sensory relay like thalamus).

Mescaline comes from…

Peyote cactus.

Most commonly used hallucinogen in the chapter?

Cannabis

THC binds to…

Cannabinoid receptors (found widely: cerebellum, hippocampus, basal ganglia, cortex).

Cannabis can cause effects like…

Increased appetite, euphoria, relaxation, sometimes paranoia.

Big takeaway about drugs and consciousness?

They alter consciousness by hijacking normal neurotransmitter systems.