622 AD

The year of the Hijra

Abbasid Revolution

Revolt (747–750) that overthrew the Umayyads and established the Abbasid dynasty

Ka’aba

Sacred shrine in Mecca focal point of pilgrimage and direction of prayer.

Arab Tribal System

Kinship-based social order emphasizing clan loyalty, Islam redirected loyalty toward the Ummah.

Qur’aish

Dominant tribe of Mecca and custodians of the Ka’aba, initially opposed Muhammad but later converted.

Abyssinia

Christian kingdom where early Muslims sought refuge, the Negus granted protection to Muslim refugees.

Abu Sufyan

Influential Qur’aish leader who opposed Muhammad until converting after the Conquest of Mecca.

Yathrib

Pre-Islamic name for Medina

Hijra

Migration of Muhammad and followers to Yathrib in 622, foundational event marking the beginning of the Islamic community.

Oath of al-‘Aqaba

Agreements between Muhammad and Medinan converts promising protection and loyalty

Qibla

Direction of prayer, originally Jerusalem, later changed to the Ka’aba.

Muhajirun

Meccan Muslims who migrated with Muhammad to Medina.

Ansar

Medinan “helpers” who welcomed and supported the Muhajirun.

Munafiqun

Hypocrites in Medina who outwardly accepted Islam but secretly opposed Muhammad.

Battle of Uhud

Muslims suffered a setback due to disobedience among archers, key lesson in unity and discipline.

Battle of the Trench

Muslims defended Medina by digging a trench

Banu Qurayza

Jewish tribe in Medina accused of treason during the Trench siege, faced severe punishment.

Truce of Hudaybiya

Peace treaty between Muhammad and Qur’aish allowing future pilgrimage and strengthening Muslim legitimacy.

Battle of Mecca

Peaceful conquest of Mecca in 630

Ridda Wars

Abu Bakr’s campaigns against tribes who renounced Islam after Muhammad’s death.

Allah

The singular God of Islam

Five Pillars

Shahada

Qur’an

Islam’s holy book

Islamic Tradition

Teachings including Qur’an

Paradise

Eternal reward for the righteous.

ahl al-Kitab

“People of the Book”—Jews

Ummah

Global community of Muslims united by faith.

Martyrdom

Dying in defense of the faith, spiritually honored but regulated.

Jihad

“Struggle”—includes personal spiritual striving and regulated warfare.

Fundamentalism

Movements seeking strict adherence to early Islamic principles.

Caliph

Political successor to Muhammad.

Abu Bakr

First Caliph, led Ridda Wars and stabilized the early Ummah.

Umar

Second Caliph, oversaw massive territorial expansion.

Uthman

Third Caliph, standardized the Qur’an, his assassination sparked the First Fitna.

Ali

Fourth Caliph, central figure in the First Fitna, revered by Shi’ites.

Battle of Siffin

Major battle between Ali and Mu’awiyah during the First Fitna.

Umayyads

First hereditary Islamic dynasty (661–750).

Shi’ites

Muslims who believe leadership should remain within Muhammad’s family

Uthmanis

Supporters of Caliph Uthman, often aligned with Umayyad interests.

Mu’awiyah

Governor of Syria, founder of the Umayyad dynasty.

First Fitna

First Islamic civil war (656–661) over succession and legitimacy.

Kharijites

Radical sect that broke from Ali’s camp, believed any sinful leader must be removed.

Rashidun

Era of the “Rightly Guided Caliphs”—Abu Bakr

Imam

Prayer leader

in Shi’ism

a divinely guided descendant of Muhammad.

Dome of the Rock

Umayyad shrine in Jerusalem commemorating Muhammad’s Night Journey.