learning to read

>harder than learning to speaking >few humans unable to speak, but many unable to read

language development

>starts before birth >1 yr- phonemes not in native language aren't discriminated >2 yrs-aware of basic grammar structures and 'naming explosion' >6yrs- 5-6k words known >preschool- pragmatic use of language

metalinguistic awareness

aware sentences can be right/wrong and that a sentence consists of words

models

all models have a decoding phase and a fluent reading phase

learning to read stage of Chall's model

>initial reading and decoding >building fluency >reading comprehension not as good as listening comprehension >grade 1-3

reading to learn stage of Chall's model

>subject area reading >vocabulary expands through reading >reading comprehension equal to listening comprehension >grade 4-9

independent reading stage of Chall's model

>wide reading in differents subjects/genres >continued vocabulary expansion >integrate multiple viewpoints >reading comprehension better than listening comprehension grade 10-university

stage 0

>first attempts >memorisation of visual image of word >no concept of grapheme/phoneme correspondence or morphology

linguistic guessing stage of Marsh et al.'s model

glance and guess- guesses may not share any letters with the actual word

discrimination net guessing stage of Marsh et al.'s model

sophisticated guessing- guesses share some letters with the actual word (Grainer et al's monkeys)

sequential decoding phase stage of Marsh et al.'s model

simple grapheme-phoneme correspondences- able to identify unfamiliar words

hierarchical decoding stage of Marsh et al.'s model

skilled reading- confidently identifies familiar and unfamiliar words

cipher/alphabetic stage

>phonological errors show attempt to apply alphabetic principle >other errors are less productive >learn through attempting phonological recoding on novel words

teaching reading

best to emphasise grapheme-phoneme correspondence

whole language approach to teaching reading

>emphasise child's discovery of meaning through experiences in literacy-rich environments >use graphic, semantic, and syntactic knowledge to guess meanings >unstructured with top-down emphasis

advantages of the whole language approach

>emphasises making reading more meaningful >focuses on leaner-driven instruction >encourages immersion in literacy-rich environments

teaching using the whole language approach

>most important words are usually irregular and should be learned first >no corrections when making errors as to not demotivate

weaknesses of the whole language approach

>some don't discover alphabetic principle without direct instruction >doesn't benefit struggling readers >less efficient >doesn't encourage spelling development

phonics approach to teaching reading

sounds that letters make are taught explicitly

teaching using the phonics approach

>start with small amount of letters then move towards complex letters and consonant clusters >words repeated frequently >code-based approach

code-based approaches

>systematic phonics introduction more effective >focus on mastery of letter-sound application >alphabetic principle explicit >more effective when used early

learning phonic skills

>time-limited process >phonics skills and comprehension needed for fluency >reading is comprehending

balanced literacy approach to teaching reading

'a bit of everything'

comparison of teaching programmes

>Evans and Carr >teacher-directed classrooms used phonics drills while student-centered classrooms used natural exposure >phonics-oriented classrooms performed better

National Reading Pannel

>mate-analysis on the effect of classroom instruction on reading performance >found systematic phonics superior

acquired dyslexia

caused by brain damage

developmental dyslexia

>decoding problems despite intact brain >normal intelligence but specific difficulties in reading due to issues with language processing

surface level acquired dyslexia

>good at reading regular words and non-words >bad at reading irregular words >direct route in DRC model damaged

phonological level acquired dyslexia

>good at reading familiar words >bad at reading unfamiliar words and non-words >indirect route in DRC model damaged

deep level acquired dyslexia

>good at reading familiar words >bad at reading unfamiliar words and non-words >characteristic semantic errors >confuse visually similar words >morphological errors

phonological deficit hypothesis for dyslexia

>dyslexics usually have problems with grapheme-phoneme correspondence >normal categorical perception of phonemes

magnocellular theory of dyslexia

>magnocellular visual pathway mediates depth, motion, and binocular coordination >Kirkby, Blythe, Drieghe, and Liversedge- higher disparity in reading tasks shows binocular disparity likely caused by difficulty of reading task, not binocular coordination issues

saccade eye movement

>20-50ms >ballistic >prepared before execution >saccadic suppression- no visual information transferred during execution

fixation eye movement

>stationary periods between saccades >200-250ms >highly variable time-length which reflects processing demands >visual information transferred

eye movements during reading

>fixate on most words >preferred viewing position is left of the centre >some words skipped, receive multiple fixations (re-fixated), or are regressed to

eye tracking

>manipulate stimulus based on gaze position >gaze contingent paradigms- invisible boundary, moving window, foveal mask, backward mask

invisible boundary technique

>measures parafoveal preprocessing >stimulus is shown and a target word is masked >after crossing a boundary stimulus this is switched to one that doesn't mask the stimulus >saccadic suppression means participant doesn't notice

invisible boundary findings

>information still extracted from words in parafovea >fixation durations shorter when fixation lands on words not masked >different masks used to examine what information is gained from parafovea

perceptual span

>area we can draw visual features from >smallest window size over text that doesn't adversely impact reading >3-4 letter space left and 14-15 letter spaces right

foveal mask

without it, fixation duration become longer, and reading rate and naming accuracy decreases

backward mask

>covering read text after a saccade eliminates benefits gained from re-reading >accuracy in comprehension decreases

E-Z reader 9

>word identification drives attention and eye movements >attention allocated serially left to right >completing stage L1 in word identification triggers saccade to next word >completing L2 triggers attention shift to next word

V stage of E-Z reader 9

early visual processing stage

L1 stage of E-Z reader 9

>first stage of lexical repocessing >'familiarity check' >completion triggers saccade to next word (L2)

L2 stage of E-Z reader 9

>lexical access >retrieval of meaning >completion triggers attentional shift to next word (L1)

M1 stage of E-Z reader 9

>labile stage of saccade preparation >cancelled by new saccade program after L1 completion >followed by M2

M2 stage of E-Z reader 9

>non-labile stage of saccade preparation >can't be cancelled

E-Z reader 9 aims

>explain eye movement in reading >doesn't explain higher linguistic processes >partial decoupling between attention and gaze position >can explain specific eye movement phenomena

other eye movement models for reading

>Engbert et al.- SWIFT >Reilly and Radach- Glenmore >Snell et al.- OB-1 >Veldre et al.- Uber-Reader

return sweeps

>20% of fixations preceded or followed it >takes the readers eye from the end of one line to the start of the next >large eye movements that traverse a large distance >inaccurate so often corrected

importance of return sweeps

>not accounted for by many models >introduces new benchmarks and constraints >easier for SWIFT to account for undersweep fixation data than EZ reader

cognitive neuropsychology

>dorsal pathway from Wernicke's area to premotor cortex (BA44) >ventral pathway from Wernicke's areas to BA45

anomia

an impaired ability to name objects which is common in aphasias

WEAVER++ explanation of anomia

>problems at semantic level (lemma selection) >problems at phonological level (auditory word form selection)

agrammatism

can find correct words but not put them in the correct order, and lacks function words and word endings

agrammatism cause

Broca's aphasia in BA44/45

jargon aphasia

speaks with fairly grammatically, but can't find the words they want to say, produces neologisms, and has severe comprehension issues

jargon aphasia cause

occurs at phonological encoding level after lexical access

stages of writing

>Hayes and Flower >planning >sentence-generation >revision

key processes in writing

>Chenoweth and Hayes >proposer- high-level processes of planning, accounting for task environment >translator- converts into sentences >transcriber- converts sentences into text >reviser- monitors and evaluates

knowledge-telling in writing expertise

write down with limited planning

knowledge-transforming in writing expertise

revises text to ensure it fits author's intentions

knowledge-crafting in writing expertise

additionally revises text, taking the potential readers into account