Basic emotion theory

grew out of Charles Darwin's theory of emotion and suggests that distinct emotions and their associated cognitive, physiological, and motor responses unfold over time in a very predictable pattern without attention or intention

James-Lange theory of emotions

1. An environmental event stimulates a sensory receptor (i.e., mechanoreceptors that respond to pressure changes) and the chemical signal is processed in the brain. 2. Your muscles and internal organs react to the environmental event, which is the emotion 3. Your muscles and internal organs would send information back to your brain that would result in conscious awareness of the emotion

Cannon-Bard thalamic theory of emotions

Claims the following order of events and ascribes an important role to the thalamus in processing emotion: 1. We perceive the physical stimulus in the environment 2. We simultaneously produce bodily or facial expression changes and acknowledge the emotion

The thalamus' role in emotions

a center for emotional expression which mediates emotional reactions and reports back to the cortex then simultaneously sends a signal to both the cerebral cortex and the sympathetic nervous system. Awareness of the emotion happens with the stimulation of the cerebral cortex, and physiological changes happen with stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system

difference between the James-Lange and the Cannon-Bard theories

events surrounding the expression of emotion occur sequentially within the James-Lange theory but simultaneously and with the help of the thalamus for Cannon-Bard

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion

emotions are comprised of two factors: (a) the physiological arousal or reaction to an event, and (b) the cognitive label

Conclusion from Schater and Singer study with the injections of epinephrine or saline

the same physiological effects can be interpreted as accompanying different emotions, depending upon the cognitive appraisal

Darwin's Three Principles

1. Serviceable habits 2. Antithesis 3. Direct action of the excited nervous system on the body

First principle of serviceable habits

emphasized that the way emotions are expressed serves a purpose in nonhuman animals and for people in the ancestral environment

Second principle of antithesis

emphasizes how opposite emotions have opposite bodily expressions

Third principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the body

emphasizes how emotions result in perceivable changes in the nervous system.

Seven universal emotions according to Paul Ekman

happiness, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, disgust, and contempt

Action unit

each emotion that has a specific facial expression that we can detect involving movement of the eyebrows, nose, mouth, cheeks, and eyes

instrumental conditioning

the two parts to learned behavior: (a) the physical stimulus related to producing rewards that we encounter in the environment, and (b) the perception of a goal-related stimulus

Frustrative events

a third type of goal event where situations in which rewards are not as quickly available as they once were or are omitted entirely, thereby leading to frustration

Hunger

motivates behavior-- when we feel hungry we eat and we stop eating when we are full

Esophagus

digests carbohydrates and fats

Stomach

digests proteins and fats

Small intestine

digests carbohydrates, fats, polypeptides, and nucleic acids

Pavlovian conditioning

influences when and what we eat

Exteroceptive stimuli

a type of stimuli that come from outside our bodies to indicate a change from on state to another. We perceive a stimulus that others can also see, hear, feel, touch, etc.

Conditional stimuli

sights, sounds, and smells of food preparation which evoke salivation and other physiological changes

Orosensory stimuli

flavor and texture sensations in the mouth

Interoceptive stimuli

a type of stimuli that come from within our bodies to indicate a change from one state to another. We experience a private sensation that others cannot see, feel, touch, etc. and respond to it.

Supernormal stimuli

exaggerated versions of natural stimuli that hijack our evolved sensory preferences, causing stronger behavioral responses than the "normal" stimulus.

Short-delayed conditioning

occurs on a smaller timescale than trace conditioning

Trace conditioning

involved in orosensory conditioning

Flavor conditioning

occurs with a lag of around 4-6 hours between the taste of food and the calories it signals

Ontogenetic learning

learning that occurs during an individual's lifetime through personal experience, rather than being inherited

Phylogenetic learning

inherited through evolution/genetics

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype

observable traits (appearance, behavior, etc.)

Insulin

made in the pancreas and helps with absorption of blood glucose

Ghrelin

made in the stomach and stimulates appetite

Leptin

made in the adipocytes (or fat cells) and suppresses appetite

Hypothalamus

produces proteins to induce eating when we're hungry and is less active when we're sated or full

neuropeptide orexin

produced in the hypothalamus and regulates eating when we're hungry as well as when we're eating tasty foods without feeling hungry

amygdala

processes food cues and emotions

Excitatory conditioning

when we are salivating, preparing for high calories

Inhibitory conditioning

when we feel uncomfortable and full from food

Satiated

in terms of hunger, the sense of being satisfied or full (i.e., no longer hungry)

Occasion setters

internal or external stimuli that signal the relationship between a response and an outcome- an internal state that teaches us when we're hungry but not when we're satiated

preparatory responding

emphasizes the adaptive properties of the conditional response

stimulus substitution and signal substitution

emphasize the form of the conditional response as an important feature to understand why Pavlovian conditioning occurs.

Social norms

food-related behaviors endorsed by the group

good genes hypothesis

females tend to choose mates seen to have genetic advantages, thereby increasing offspring quality

Hermaphrodites

an adjective describing an animal that can be either male, contributing sperm, or female, contributing eggs in a sexual encounter

Gender ratio hypothesis

describes how sea slugs decide when to contribute sperm and when to receive it

Pheromones

a type of chemical signal to indicate the reproductive status of a potential partner

olfactory sensitivity to pheromones

a type of stimulus in which animals detect and learn about what scent stimuli predict. We smell something, and it changes our behavior

Attachment is formed through two chemicals

○ Oxytocin ○ Vasopressin

Lust is formed through two chemicals

○ Testosterone ○ Estrogen

Attraction: and loss of appetite and sleep is formed through three chemicals

○ Dopamine ○ Norepinephrine ○ Serotonin

Bruce effect

can also occur when a female mouse's pregnancy is terminated within the first few days by a new male

Whitten effect

typically produced by introducing a male (or his smell) and can induce ovulation in multiple female rats simultaneously

Coolidge Effect

an animal has multiple mate-pairings with the same partner, loses interest in that partner, and experiences renewed sexual interest in a new partner

Habituation

a type of learning in which an animal is exposed to the same stimulus repeatedly and eventually stops responding to the uninformative stimulus

Dishabituation

an effect when an animal is exposed to the same stimulus repeatedly, stops responding to the uninformative stimulus, and responds to the repeated stimulus when there is a change in context, a different stimulus is presented just before it, or there is a rest period without presentation of the repeated stimulus.

Mate Poaching

the result when a person expresses sexual interest in and courts an unavailable romantic partner to get that person to leave their current relationship

paternal uncertainty

the dilemma that men cannot know directly whether the child their partner is carrying is theirs or someone else's

rivalry sensitivity hypothesis

proposes that men and women have evolved different sensitivities to cues of infidelity in their romantic partners--women focus on rivals in their partner's vicinity, while men focus on their partner if a rival is nearby.

Motivation

the cause of behavior that is closely tied to antecedents and consequences of behavior as well as internal drives. It is why we do what we do

motivational intensity theory

motivation determines how long we persist along our current course of action and how much effort we'll exert

Need to belong theory of motivation

claims that we need close relationships and repeated interactions with the same person. This is apparent in how we respond when those bonds are broken in ostracism

drive-reduction theory

a positive correlation between response frequency and excitatory potential

Need reduction

when you become less and less affected by a stimulus the more that it is presented to you

simple versus difficult tasks in relation to strong and weak performance and low and high arousal

simple task curates strong performance and high arousal and a difficult task curates weak performance and high arousal

Premack principle

a behavior or activity that has a higher probability of occurring may be used as a reinforcer for a behavior or activity that has a lower probability of occurring

Motivating operations

variables that are extended in time and momentarily change the current frequency of behavior related to a specific reinforcer

Establishing operations

increase the effectiveness of reinforcers and evoke behavior related to obtaining them

Abolishing operations

decrease the effectiveness of reinforcers and decrease behavior related to obtaining them

hierarchy of needs

a theory to explain motivation as a series of five human needs and the fulfillment of those needs. The lowest levels of needs are considered basic needs, which are physiological needs followed by safety needs. Once both these needs are met, Maslow proposed the individual can then seek higher-order needs, beginning with belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, and finally self-actualization

ostracism

what happens when one member or the whole group ignores and excludes another member or group who is ill, freeloading, or lacks the skills needed to contribute

Achievement motivation

all people have an internal desire or drive to achieve excellence at something, which is reflected in their performance on tasks in that content area

Self-determination theory

Our ambitions can come from our own standards (intrinsic) or imposed upon us (extrinsic)

Early & Drive Theories

behavior is driven by internal and physiological needs or arousal that must be reduced or optimized. Optimal performance occurs at a moderate level of arousal.

Operant theories

behavior is motivated by the consequences and the context. We perform less-preferred activities to access more-preferred ones. Situational factors (like deprivation) change the value of rewards (Motivating Operations)

Needs-Based & Social

motivation is directed toward fulfilling higher-order human needs for growth and connection. We must satisfy basic needs before moving toward self-actualization. The fundamental need to form strong, lasting relationships is a key motivator.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

states that performance improves with arousal up to an optimal point, after which excessive arousal decreases performance.

three classifications of affective input regarding emotions

○ Weak versus strong (intensity/arousal) ○ Pleasant versus unpleasant (valence) ○ Approach versus avoid (motivation)

Emotional contagion

when you catch an emotion from another person

Approach motivation

goals focused on a rewarding, desired end-state

Avoidance motivation

goals focused on a punishing, undesired end-state

Maslow's hierarchy of needs from safety needs to most basic needs

self-transcendence, self-actualization, esteem, love/belonging, safety, physiological

self-transcendence

mystical experiences, communion with nature, sense of identity beyond the individual self, moving away from personal concerns, serving others

self-actualization

morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts, growth, exploration, and love of humanity

esteem

self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others

love/belonging

friendship, family, sexual intimacy

safety

security of: body, employment, resources, morality, the family, health property

physiological

breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion