Sensation

The detection of physical energy by our sense organs; which then send that information to the brain

Perception

The brain's interpretation of raw sensory data.

Transduction

Special sensory receptors turn physical stimuli into neurons firing. - An external stimulus is converted by a sensory receptor into neural activity

Absolute threshold

Detect sensory information - The lowest level of a stimulus we can detect 50% of the time

Difference threshold

The smallest amount of stimulus change we can detect. - increases as the stimulus becomes more intense.

Weber’s Law

It states that the just-noticeable difference between two sensory inputs is based on a proportion of the original sensory input rather than on a fixed amount of difference.

Sensory adaptation

Our sensory systems are tuned to notice changes in our surroundings. - If a stimulus is unchanging, we tend to stop noticing it. Our sensory systems become less sensitive to processing a constant level of input

Figure and ground

the first task of perception is to determine what the focus is and what the background is. Once the brain identifies a figure, the rest of the visual stimulus becomes the ground.

Grouping

the system has to determine which parts of a visual stimulus “go together”

Proximity

things that are close to each other tend to be perceived as being together.

Similarity

things that are similar tend to get grouped together.

Continuity

first, we see the squiggle, then the shapes.

Closure

figures with gaps are interpreted as complete

Illusory contours

contours are perceived even when they do not exist.

Bottom-up processing

Processing begins with the external world and the sensory input, and is then processed from these basic, lower levels to higher, more conceptual levels within the brain

Top-down processing

Higher levels of conceptual processing, like past experiences and expectations, can influence object perception at lower, more basic levels; We “see” faces and figures in ambiguous stimuli

Binocular depth perception

Requires both eyes

Binocular disparity

each eye has a slightly different image of the world

Monocular depth perception

requires only one eye

Learning

as a change in behavior resulting from experience.

Tabula rasa

blank slates

John Watson

Argued that if psychology wanted to be a science

Sensory adaptation

Our sensory systems are tuned to notice changes in our surroundings. If a stimulus is unchanging, we tend to stop noticing it. Our sensory systems become less sensitive to processing a constant level of input

Figure and ground

the first task of perception is to determine what the focus is and what the background is. Once the brain identifies a figure, the rest of the visual stimulus becomes the ground.

Grouping

the system has to determine which parts of a visual stimulus “go together”

Proximity

things that are close to each other tend to be perceived as being together.

Similarity

things that are similar tend to get grouped together.

Continuity

first, we see the squiggle, then the shapes.

Closure

figures with gaps are interpreted as complete

Illusory contours

perceived even when they do not exist.

Non-associative learning

when we learn about one stimulus out there in the world.

Habituation

When we are exposed to a stimulus for a long time, or repeatedly, our behavioral response to that stimulus decreases

Sensitization

This is when a person is exposed to a stimulus for a long time, or repeatedly, and then has an increased behavioral response.

Associative learning

learning that requires understanding how two or more pieces of information are related to each other

Classical conditioning

when you learn that two stimuli go together

Operant conditioning

when you learn that a behavior leads to a particular outcome

Acquisition

phase during which a conditioned response is established. - The strongest conditioning happens when the conditioned stimulus is presented slightly before the unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction

reduction and elimination of the conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

occurs when a previously extinguished response reappears after taking a break without any additional conditioning.

Phobia

learned fear that is exaggerated in comparison to the real threat of an object or situation.

Counterconditioning

when an organism’s negative reaction to something is changed by getting the organism to associate it with something they like.

Conditioned taste aversions

we readily learn the connection between eating a new food and getting sick, so that we avoid that food in the future.

Operant conditioning

learning controlled by the consequences of the organism's behavior

Law of Effect

any behavior that leads to a “satisfying outcome” is likely to occur again.

Primary reinforcers

Reinforcers that meet basic needs

Secondary reinforcers

reinforcers that we learn to treat as rewards.

Premack principle

A more valued activity can be used to reinforce performing a less valued activity. You can use a behavior you enjoy as a reinforcer for a behavior you’ve been putting off.

Continuous reinforcement

The reinforcer is delivered every time the response occurs.

Partial reinforcement

reinforcer is administered only some of the time after a response occurs. - Behaviors will be more resistant to extinction if they are reinforced this way

Positive reinforcement

stimuli that strengthen a response (something good is added)

Negative reinforcement

The removal of unpleasant stimuli, such as pain (something bad is subtracted)

Positive punishment

presentation of an unpleasant stimulus (something bad is added

Negative punishment

Removal of a pleasant stimulus (a.k.a. “penalty” –subtraction of something good).

Shaping

It’s the process of reinforcing responses that come successively closer to the desired response.

Insight learning

form of learning that takes place without reinforcement - where a solution suddenly emerges after a delay - it manifests as a sudden, dramatic improvement in performance.

Observational learning

when an individual acquires or changes a behavior after viewing another individual performing it.