Anatomical position

Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward, feet pointing forward.

Medial

Toward the body's midline.

Lateral

Away from the body's midline.

Proximal

Closer to the trunk or point of attachment.

Distal

Farther from the trunk or point of attachment.

Superficial

Closer to the body surface.

Deep

Farther inside the body, away from the surface.

Superior / Cranial

Toward the head.

Inferior / Caudal

Toward the feet or lower part of the body.

Anterior / Ventral

Toward the front of the body.

Posterior / Dorsal

Toward the back of the body.

Cephalic

Head region.

Cranial

Skull region.

Cervical

Neck region.

Buccal

Cheek region.

Frontal

Forehead region.

Mental

Chin region.

Nasal

Nose region.

Occipital

Back of the head.

Oral

Mouth region.

Orbital

Eye region.

Otic

Ear region.

Acromial

Point of the shoulder.

Antebrachial

Forearm region.

Antecubital

Front of the elbow.

Axillary

Armpit region.

Brachial

Upper arm.

Carpal

Wrist.

Digital

Fingers or toes.

Manual

Hand.

Palmar

Palm of the hand.

Pollex

Thumb.

Scapular

Shoulder blade region.

Sternal

Breastbone/sternum region.

Mammary

Breast region.

Thoracic

Chest region.

Abdominal

Abdomen region.

Coxal

Hip region.

Gluteal

Buttock region.

Inguinal

Groin region.

Lumbar

Lower back region.

Perineal

Area between the external genitalia and anus.

Pelvic

Pelvis region.

Pubic

Genital/front pelvic region.

Sacral

Region over the sacrum.

Umbilical

Navel/belly button region.

Vertebral

Spinal column region.

Calcaneal

Heel region.

Crural

Anterior lower leg/shin region.

Femoral

Thigh region.

Hallux

Big toe.

Patellar

Front of the knee.

Pedal

Foot.

Plantar

Sole of the foot.

Popliteal

Back of the knee.

Sural

Calf region.

Tarsal

Ankle region.

Cranial cavity

Cavity inside the skull containing the brain.

Vertebral cavity

Cavity inside the vertebral column containing the spinal cord.

Dorsal cavity

Posterior body cavity made of the cranial and vertebral cavities.

Thoracic cavity

Chest cavity containing the lungs and heart.

Mediastinum

Central region of the thoracic cavity between the lungs.

Pericardial cavity

Cavity surrounding the heart.

Pleural cavity

Cavity surrounding each lung.

Abdominopelvic cavity

Anterior cavity made of the abdominal and pelvic cavities.

Abdominal cavity

Cavity containing many digestive organs.

Pelvic cavity

Cavity containing the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum.

Ventral cavity

Anterior body cavity including the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

Parietal layer

Serous membrane layer lining the wall of a body cavity.

Visceral layer

Serous membrane layer covering the organ itself.

Pericardium

Membrane surrounding the heart.

Pleura

Membrane surrounding the lungs.

Peritoneum

Membrane associated with the abdominopelvic organs.

RUQ

Right Upper Quadrant of the abdomen.

LUQ

Left Upper Quadrant of the abdomen.

RLQ

Right Lower Quadrant of the abdomen.

LLQ

Left Lower Quadrant of the abdomen.

Epigastric region

Upper middle abdominopelvic region.

Hypogastric / Pubic region

Lower middle abdominopelvic region.

Right hypochondriac region

Upper right abdominopelvic region.

Left hypochondriac region

Upper left abdominopelvic region.

Right lumbar region

Middle right abdominopelvic region.

Left lumbar region

Middle left abdominopelvic region.

Right iliac / inguinal region

Lower right abdominopelvic region.

Left iliac / inguinal region

Lower left abdominopelvic region.

Umbilical region

Center of the nine abdominopelvic regions.

Sagittal plane

Divides the body into right and left portions.

Midsagittal / median plane

Divides the body into equal right and left halves.

Parasagittal plane

Divides the body into unequal right and left portions.

Coronal / frontal plane

Divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.

Transverse plane

Divides the body into superior and inferior portions.

Integumentary system

Skin, hair, nails, and glands; protects the body and helps regulate temperature.

Skeletal system

Bones, cartilage, and joints; supports, protects, and helps produce blood cells.

Muscular system

Muscles; produces movement, maintains posture, and produces heat.

Nervous system

Brain, spinal cord, and nerves; provides rapid control and communication.

Endocrine system

Hormone-producing glands; regulates body processes over longer periods.

Cardiovascular system

Heart, blood, and blood vessels; transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and wastes.

Lymphatic system

Lymph vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus; returns fluid and supports immune defense.

Respiratory system

Lungs and airways; exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Digestive system

Digestive tract and accessory organs; breaks down food and absorbs nutrients.

Urinary system

Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra; removes wastes and regulates water/electrolytes.

Male reproductive system

Produces sperm and male reproductive hormones and supports reproduction.

Female reproductive system

Produces eggs and reproductive hormones and supports pregnancy.

Microscope arm

Supports the upper part of the microscope and is used when carrying it.

Microscope base

Supports the microscope.

Condenser

Focuses light onto the specimen.

Coarse adjustment knob

Moves the stage/objectives quickly for rough focusing, usually on low power.

Fine adjustment knob

Makes small focus adjustments and sharpens the image.

Ocular lenses / eyepieces

Lenses you look through; commonly 10x.

Iris diaphragm

Controls the amount of light passing through the specimen.

Microscope head

Holds the upper optical components.

Light control

Adjusts the intensity of the microscope light.

Mechanical stage

Platform that holds the slide.

Mechanical stage controls

Move the slide left/right and forward/back.

Nosepiece

Rotating part that holds the objective lenses.

Objective lenses

Lenses that magnify the specimen.

Power switch

Turns the microscope on or off.

Substage lamp

Provides light from below the specimen.

Total magnification

Ocular lens magnification multiplied by objective lens magnification.

Interphase

Cell grows, performs normal functions, and copies its DNA before mitosis.

Prophase

Chromosomes condense and become visible; spindle formation begins.

Metaphase

Chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell.

Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles.

Telophase

Two new nuclei form around the chromosome sets.

Cytokinesis

Cytoplasm divides to form two daughter cells.

PMAT

Order of mitosis stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.

Nucleus

Contains the cell's DNA.

Chromatin

Loose DNA and proteins in the nucleus.

Chromosome

Condensed DNA that is visible during cell division.

Sister chromatids

Two identical copies of a replicated chromosome joined together before separation.

Nucleolus

Makes rRNA and helps assemble ribosomes.

Cleavage furrow

Indentation that pinches an animal cell into two cells.

Epithelial tissue

Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands.

Connective tissue

Supports, binds, protects, stores, and transports.

Muscle tissue

Contracts to produce movement.

Nervous tissue

Sends electrical signals for communication and control.

Simple squamous epithelium

One thin layer of flat cells; suited for diffusion and filtration.

Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Many layers with moist surface cells; protects against abrasion.

Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Many layers with a dry keratin-filled surface; forms the epidermis.

Simple cuboidal epithelium

One layer of cube-shaped cells; secretion and absorption.

Simple columnar epithelium

One layer of tall cells; absorption and secretion, especially in the digestive tract.

Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Looks multilayered but all cells contact the basement membrane; cilia help move mucus.

Areolar connective tissue

Loose connective tissue with scattered fibers and open spaces; wraps and cushions tissues.

Adipose tissue

Large fat cells; stores energy, insulates, and cushions.

Dense regular connective tissue

Parallel collagen fibers; strong in one direction, as in tendons and ligaments.

Dense irregular connective tissue

Collagen fibers arranged in many directions; provides strength in multiple directions.

Hyaline cartilage

Smooth, glassy cartilage with chondrocytes in lacunae; support and cushioning.

Fibrocartilage

Cartilage with thick collagen fibers; resists compression and absorbs shock.

Elastic cartilage

Cartilage with elastic fibers; flexible and maintains shape.

Epidermis

Outer epithelial layer of the skin.

Stratum corneum

Outermost epidermal layer made mostly of dead, keratin-filled cells.

Stratum granulosum

Epidermal layer where keratinization increases and cells begin to die.

Stratum lucidum

Clear epidermal layer found in thick skin such as palms and soles.

Stratum spinosum

Epidermal layer with cells that provide strength and begin producing more keratin.

Stratum basale

Deepest epidermal layer; produces new epidermal cells.

Epidermal strata order

From superficial to deep: corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale.

Dermis

Connective tissue layer beneath the epidermis containing vessels, nerves, glands, and hair follicles.

Papillary layer

Superficial dermal layer containing dermal papillae and small blood vessels.

Dermal papillae

Projections that anchor the epidermis to the dermis and increase contact between layers.

Tactile / Meissner corpuscle

Receptor for light touch.

Free sensory nerve endings

Detect pain, temperature, and other sensations.

Reticular layer

Deeper, thicker part of the dermis that provides strength.

Lamellar / Pacinian corpuscle

Receptor for deep pressure and vibration.

Root hair plexus

Sensory nerve network that detects hair movement.

Arrector pili muscle

Small muscle that pulls a hair upright and causes goosebumps.

Eccrine / merocrine sweat gland

Produces watery sweat that helps cool the body.

Apocrine sweat gland

Produces a thicker secretion associated with hair follicles in certain regions.

Sebaceous gland

Produces sebum, an oily substance that lubricates skin and hair.

Hypodermis

Layer deep to the skin containing mainly adipose and connective tissue; provides insulation and cushioning.

Hair follicle

Tube-like structure surrounding and anchoring the hair.

Hair bulb

Expanded base of the hair follicle.

Hair matrix

Dividing cells at the hair bulb that produce the hair.

Hair shaft

Visible portion of hair extending above the skin.

Osteocyte

Mature bone cell.

Lacuna

Small space in bone that contains an osteocyte.

Canaliculi

Tiny channels connecting lacunae and allowing communication between osteocytes.

Osteon

Circular structural unit of compact bone.

Central canal

Canal in the center of an osteon containing blood vessels and nerves.

Concentric lamellae

Rings of bone matrix surrounding the central canal.

Trabeculae

Thin plates/beams that form the framework of spongy bone.

Red bone marrow

Bone marrow that produces blood cells.

Yellow bone marrow

Fat-storing bone marrow.

Circumferential lamellae

Bone layers that wrap around the outer or inner circumference of a bone.

Interstitial lamellae

Remnants of older osteons found between complete osteons.

Perforating canals

Canals connecting blood vessels of central canals with vessels in the periosteum and other areas.

Periosteum

Connective tissue covering the outer surface of bone except at joint surfaces.

Endosteum

Membrane lining internal bone surfaces.

Long bone

Bone longer than it is wide; example: femur.

Short bone

Roughly cube-shaped bone; examples: carpals and tarsals.

Flat bone

Thin, often curved bone; examples: sternum and many skull bones.

Irregular bone

Bone with a complex shape; example: vertebra.

Sesamoid bone

Bone that develops within a tendon; example: patella.

Sutural bone

Small bone located within a skull suture.

Diaphysis

Shaft of a long bone.

Medullary cavity

Hollow central cavity in the shaft of a long bone containing marrow.

Metaphysis

Region between the diaphysis and epiphysis.

Epiphysis

Expanded end of a long bone.

Epiphyseal plate

Cartilage plate where lengthwise growth of a long bone occurs.

Epiphyseal line

Bony remnant of the growth plate after lengthwise growth stops.

Paranasal sinuses

Air-filled spaces in skull bones that lighten the skull and help condition inhaled air.

Frontal sinus

Paranasal sinus located in the frontal bone.

Sphenoid sinus

Paranasal sinus located in the sphenoid bone.

Ethmoid sinus

Paranasal sinus located in the ethmoid bone.

Maxillary sinus

Paranasal sinus located in the maxilla.

Coronal suture

Suture between the frontal and parietal bones.

Sagittal suture

Suture between the two parietal bones.

Lambdoid suture

Suture between the parietal bones and occipital bone.

Squamous suture

Suture between the parietal and temporal bones.

Frontal bone

Bone forming the forehead and part of the roof of the orbits.

Supraorbital notch/foramen

Opening above the orbit for nerves and blood vessels.

Parietal bone

Bone forming much of the upper sides and roof of the skull.

Occipital bone

Bone forming the back and base of the skull.

Foramen magnum

Large opening in the occipital bone through which the spinal cord passes.

Occipital condyles

Rounded surfaces that articulate with the atlas (C1).

Temporal bone

Bone on the side and base of the skull.

External auditory/acoustic meatus

Opening leading into the ear canal.

Styloid process

Thin pointed projection of the temporal bone for muscle and ligament attachment.

Zygomatic process

Projection of the temporal bone that contributes to the zygomatic arch.

Mastoid process

Rounded projection behind the ear for muscle attachment.

Carotid canal

Passage through the temporal bone for the internal carotid artery.

Jugular foramen

Opening for the internal jugular vein and several cranial nerves.

Sphenoid bone

Central skull bone at the base of the cranium.

Sella turcica

Depression in the sphenoid bone that houses the pituitary gland.

Greater wings

Large lateral projections of the sphenoid bone.

Lesser wings

Smaller projections of the sphenoid bone.

Pterygoid processes

Sphenoid projections that provide muscle attachment.

Optic foramen/canal

Opening for the optic nerve and associated blood vessels.

Foramen ovale

Opening in the sphenoid for the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve.

Foramen rotundum

Opening in the sphenoid for the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve.

Ethmoid bone

Bone between the eyes that contributes to the nasal cavity and orbits.

Crista galli

Superior projection of the ethmoid bone for attachment of a membrane supporting the brain.

Perpendicular plate

Vertical ethmoid projection that contributes to the nasal septum.

Superior nasal concha

Upper nasal concha formed by the ethmoid bone; helps direct airflow.

Middle nasal concha

Middle nasal concha formed by the ethmoid bone; helps direct airflow.

Cribriform plate

Horizontal ethmoid plate containing openings for olfactory nerve fibers.

Olfactory foramina

Small openings in the cribriform plate for olfactory nerve fibers.

Inferior nasal concha

Separate facial bone forming the lowest nasal concha.

Maxillary bone

Upper jaw bone; holds upper teeth.

Palatine bone

Bone forming the posterior part of the hard palate.

Vomer

Bone forming the inferior portion of the nasal septum.

Zygomatic bone

Cheekbone.

Lacrimal bone

Small bone on the medial wall of the orbit.

Nasal bone

Bone forming the bridge of the nose.

Mandible

Lower jaw bone.

Mental foramen

Opening in the mandible for nerves and blood vessels.

Mandibular condyles

Rounded projections of the mandible that articulate with the temporal bones.

Coronoid process

Anterior projection of the mandible for muscle attachment.

Hyoid bone

Bone that supports the tongue and provides attachment for swallowing muscles; it does not directly articulate with another bone.

Spinous process

Posterior projection of a vertebra for muscle and ligament attachment.

Transverse processes

Lateral projections of vertebrae for muscle and ligament attachment.

Vertebral body

Anterior, weight-bearing portion of a vertebra.

Vertebral canal

Passageway through the vertebral column containing the spinal cord.

Transverse foramina

Openings in cervical vertebrae for vertebral blood vessels.

C1 Atlas

First cervical vertebra; supports the skull.

C2 Axis

Second cervical vertebra; contains the dens and allows head rotation.

Dens

Projection of C2 that acts as a pivot for head rotation.

C3-C7

Typical cervical vertebrae.

Cervical spine

Neck region of the vertebral column; C1-C7.

Thoracic spine

Middle spine region; T1-T12 and associated with ribs.

Lumbar spine

Lower back region; L1-L5 and designed for weight bearing.

Sacral spine / sacrum

Fused vertebrae connecting the spine to the pelvis.

Coccyx

Tailbone; usually formed by fused vertebrae.

Sternum

Breastbone of the thoracic cage.

Manubrium

Superior part of the sternum.

Body of sternum

Long middle part of the sternum.

Xiphoid process

Inferior pointed part of the sternum.

Ribs

12 pairs of bones forming most of the thoracic cage.

True ribs

Ribs 1-7; attach directly to the sternum through their own costal cartilage.

False ribs

Ribs 8-12; do not attach directly to the sternum.

Floating ribs

Ribs 11-12; do not attach to the sternum at all.

Costal cartilages

Cartilage connecting ribs to the sternum and providing flexibility.