Cognitive Dissonance

unpleasant state caused by inconsistency among beliefs, attitudes, or actions

Insufficient justification effect

attitude change to reduce dissonance when can’t attribute inconsistent behavior to reward or punishment

Effort justification effect

attitude change to reduce dissonance when exerted considerable effort or suffering to achieve goal

Post-decisional regret effect

attitude change to reduce dissonance when freely made a choice or decision

Hypocrisy effect

behavior change to reduce dissonance by publicly advocating a behavior that you don’t actually perform

Foot-in-the-door technique

start with smaller request to increase compliance with a large request

Social Norms

generally accepted way of thinking, feeling, or behaving that most people in a group agree on and endorse

Descriptive Norms

Norms of what a group of people actually think, feel, or do

Injunctive norms

Norms of what a group of people should think, feel, or do

Conformity

convergence of thoughts, feelings, or behavior toward a social norm

Private conformity

Private acceptance of social norms – truly endorse it

Public conformity

Behavior consistent with norms that are not privately accepted

Informational influence

group norms are privately accepted to achieve or maintain mastery of reality

Normative influence

group norms are privately accepted to achieve or maintain connectedness and a valued social identity

reference group

people accepted as appropriate source of info for judgment

Group polarization

process where a group’s initial average position becomes more extreme following group interaction

Groupthink

group decision making that is impaired by the drive to reach consensus regardless of how the consensus is formed

False consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate others’ agreement with one’s own opinions, characteristics, and behaviors

Pluralistic ignorance

occurs when everyone publicly conforms to an apparent norm that no one in fact privately accepts

Deindividuation

A state of reduced individuality, self-awareness, and attention to personal standards

Norm of Reciprocity

people are obligated to return to others the goods, services, and concessions they offer to us

Door-in-the-face technique

make large request that you know will be rejected to increase compliance for a smaller request

Norm of social commitment

people are required to honor agreements and obligations

Lowball technique

influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the cost of honoring the commitment

Norm of obedience to authority

the shared view that people should obey those with legitimate authority

Reactance

the motive to protect or restore a threatened sense of behavioral freedom

Interdependent

each group member’s thoughts, emotions, & behaviors influence others’

Task interdependence

reliance on other members of a group for mastery of material outcomes that arise from the group’s task

Social interdependence

reliance on other members of the group for feelings of connectedness, social and emotional rewards, and a positive social identity

Rejection

exclusion through explicit declaration

Ostracism

exclusion by being ignored

Social facilitation

an increase in the likelihood of highly accessible responses, and a decrease in the likelihood of less accessible responses, due to the presence of others

Evaluation apprehension

worry about what others think of us

Social loafing

tendency to exert less effort on task in a group than when the same task is performed alone

Social compensation

one group member working especially hard to compensate for another’s low level of effort or performance

Contingency theories of leadership

theories holding that leader behaviors can differ and that different behaviors are most effective in specific leadership situations

relationship-oriented leader

If task requires lots of interpersonal interaction and cooperation

Task-oriented leader

Already cohesive group takes on difficult and complex task

Close relationship

relationship involving strong and frequent interdependence

Love

thoughts, feelings, and actions that occur when a person wishes to enter or maintain a close relationship with a specific person

Cognitive Interdependence

thinking about the self and partner as inextricably linked parts of a whole

behavioral interdependence

each person has influence on partner’s decisions, activities, and plans

Affective interdependence

each partner’s emotional well-being is deeply affected by what other does

Intimacy

positive emotional bond that includes understanding and support

Commitment

dedication to maintain relationship for long term

Attachment orientation

how people are bonded with another person; anxiety and avoidance dimensions

Secure

feel good about themselves and others, are unafraid of intimacy, and unworried about abandonment (low avoidance and anxiety)

Dismissive avoidant

tend to feel good about themselves but do not trust others; avoid intimacy and are not worried by the lack of it (high avoidance, low anxiety)

anxious preoccupied

want to be intimate with others but worry that others don’t want to be as close or as caring as they do; uneasy in their relationships and constantly anticipate threats and problems with them (low avoidance, high anxiety)

fearful avoidant

characterized by anxiety about abandonment and a fear of intimacy; reluctant to open up or share (high avoidance and anxiety)

romantic love

involves sense of longing for partner, euphoric feelings of fulfillment/ ecstasy when the relationship goes well, and anxiety/despair when it doesn’t

evolutionary theory

Gender differences due to higher cost of successful reproduction for women than for men

social roles theory

Gender differences in preferences are due to cultural expectations

exchange relationships

a relationship in which people offer rewards to receive benefits in return

communal relationships

a relationship in which people reward their partner out of direct concern and to show caring

accommodation

processes of responding to a negative situation or action by the partner

constructive accommodation

Actions that help maintain relationship

destructive accommodation

Actions that actively endanger relationship

critcism

goes beyond complaining about a specific act

contempt

lack of respect for partner conveyed by ridicule, sarcasm, name-calling

defensiveness

response to criticism that makes excuses or conveys that complaint is not being taken seriously

stonewalling

tuning out or withdrawing from interaction