Absolute direction

The precise cardinal directions of a location—north, south, east, or west—used to describe spatial orientation on Earth.

Absolute distance

The measurable physical space between two points, expressed in standard units such as miles or kilometers.

Absolute location

The exact position of a place on Earth, identified by coordinates of latitude and longitude.

Cartography

The science and art of making maps, including the design, production, and study of map projections.

Census

An official count or survey of a population, recording details such as age, sex, and occupation.

Census Tract

A small, relatively permanent statistical subdivision of a county used by the U.S. Census Bureau to analyze population data.

Core

The central area of economic, political, or cultural power within a region or global system.

Distance decay

The principle that interaction between two places decreases as the distance between them increases.

Distributed

Arranged or spread out over an area or space; in geography, refers to how phenomena are spatially spread.

Ecological perspective

A viewpoint that examines human–environment relationships and how ecosystems influence spatial patterns.

Environmental determinism

The theory that the physical environment shapes human culture and societal development.

Field Observation

Collecting geographic data by directly observing people, places, and environments in the field.

Formal region

An area defined by officially recognized boundaries or shared characteristics, such as language or climate.

Functional region

A region organized around a central node or focal point, such as a metropolitan area or trade network.

GIS

A computer system that captures, stores, analyzes, and displays spatial or geographic data.

Global scale

Examines patterns and processes that affect the entire world, such as globalization or climate change.

Globalization

The process of increasing interconnection and interdependence among countries through trade, communication, and culture.

GPS

A satellite‑based navigation system that determines precise location anywhere on Earth.

Human geography

The study of how humans interact with, shape, and are influenced by the Earth’s surface and spatial patterns.

Local scale

Focuses on spatial patterns and processes within a small area, such as a city or neighborhood.

Map distortion

The alteration of shape, area, distance, or direction that occurs when representing the curved Earth on a flat map.

Map projection

A method used to transfer the Earth’s three‑dimensional surface onto a two‑dimensional map.

Mental map

A person’s internal representation of spatial information—how they perceive and remember places.

National scale

Examines patterns and processes within a single country, such as population distribution or economic activity.

Node

A central point of connection or activity within a network, such as a city in a transportation system.

Pattern

The spatial arrangement of objects or phenomena on Earth’s surface.

Perceptual/Vernacular region

An area defined by people’s shared perceptions or cultural identity rather than official boundaries.

Periphery

The outer areas of a region that are less developed and often dependent on the core for economic activity.

Physical geography

The study of natural features and processes of Earth, including climate, landforms, and ecosystems.

Place

A specific point on Earth distinguished by particular human and physical characteristics.

Possibilism

The theory that humans have the ability to adjust and modify their environment rather than being completely controlled by it.

Qualitative

Data based on descriptions, observations, or interviews that capture characteristics rather than numbers.

Quantitative

Data expressed numerically, often used to measure and analyze spatial patterns statistically.

Reference maps

Maps that show general information about locations, such as political boundaries, physical features, or roads.

Region

An area defined by one or more distinctive characteristics that set it apart from surrounding areas.

Regional scale

Examines spatial patterns across a specific region, such as the Midwest or Sub‑Saharan Africa.

Relative direction

Directions based on people’s perception, such as “up north,” “toward downtown,” or “across the river.”

Relative distance

A measure of social, economic, or time‑based separation between places rather than physical distance.

Relative location

The position of a place in relation to other places, often described using landmarks or proximity.

Remote sensing

The collection of data about Earth’s surface from satellites or aircraft.

Satellite navigation system

A system of satellites that provides autonomous geo‑spatial positioning, allowing users to determine location and time anywhere on Earth.

Scale

The relationship between the distance on a map and the corresponding distance on Earth’s surface.

Semi‑periphery

Countries or regions that are industrializing and positioned between the core and periphery in the world‑systems model.

Site

The physical characteristics of a place, such as its terrain, climate, and resources.

Situation

The location of a place relative to other places and its connectivity or accessibility.

Space

The physical gap or interval between two objects on Earth’s surface.

Spatial perspective

A way of looking at the world that focuses on where things occur and why they are located there.

Sustainability

The use of Earth’s resources in ways that ensure their availability for future generations.

Sustainable development

Economic growth that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs.

Thematic maps

Maps that show specific data or patterns, such as population density or climate zones.

Time‑space compression

The reduction in time it takes for something to reach another place due to improved technology and communication.

Topography

The arrangement of natural and artificial physical features of an area.

Toponym

The name given to a place on Earth, often reflecting cultural or historical significance.

World system theory

A model explaining global economic patterns through the division of countries into core, semi‑periphery, and periphery zones.

Azimuthal projection

A map projection that shows the Earth from a single central point, often used for polar regions.

Cartogram map

A map in which the size of areas is distorted to represent a specific variable, such as population or GDP.

Choropleth map

A thematic map that uses color shading or patterns to represent data values across predefined areas.

Dot map

A map that uses dots to show the presence, quantity, or value of a phenomenon in a specific location.

Gall‑Peters projection

An equal‑area map projection that accurately represents land area but distorts shape, emphasizing spatial equality.

Isoline map

A map that uses continuous lines to connect points of equal value, such as elevation or temperature.

Mercator projection

A cylindrical map projection that preserves direction but distorts size, especially near the poles.

Political map

A reference map showing boundaries, cities, and countries to highlight human‑made divisions.

Robinson projection

A compromise map projection that balances shape and size distortions, often used for world maps.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

The time standard based on the prime meridian (0° longitude) that serves as the reference for world time zones.

International Date Line

An imaginary line roughly along 180° longitude where the date changes by one day when crossed.

Latitude

The angular distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees.

Longitude

The angular distance east or west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees.

Meridian

A line of longitude running from the North Pole to the South Pole.

Parallel

A line of latitude running east–west around the globe, parallel to the equator.

Prime Meridian

The 0° longitude line that passes through Greenwich, England, serving as the starting point for measuring longitude.

Time zone

A region of the Earth that observes a uniform standard time, usually offset from GMT by whole hours.