What does empirical mean?

Grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be repeatedly observed by multiple people.

What is the scientific process?

Theory -> Hypothesis -> Research -> Observation -> Create or modify theory.

What is System 1 thinking?

Intuitive, fast, and automatic thinking.

What is System 2 thinking?

Analytical, slower, and effortful thinking.

What are heuristics?

Mental shortcuts that are useful but can sometimes lead to errors.

What is an operational definition?

The way a variable is defined and measured.

What is random selection?

Choosing participants so the sample represents the population.

What does random selection increase?

Generalizability.

What is reliability?

Consistency of measurement.

What is test-retest reliability?

Getting similar results when the same measure is repeated over time.

What is inter-rater reliability?

Different observers using the same measure obtain similar results.

What is validity?

Accuracy of measurement.

In the statement "If having pets makes people happier...", what is the hypothesis?

"If having pets makes people happier" is the testable and falsifiable hypothesis.

In the statement "People with dogs will score higher on tests of well-being...", what is the operational definition?

"Score higher on tests of well-being" is the operational definition of happiness.

What is a case study?

An in-depth examination of a person, group, or event.

What is a strength of a case study?

Generates ideas and provides existence proofs.

What is a limitation of a case study?

Cannot determine cause and effect.

What is naturalistic observation?

Observing behavior in a real-world setting without interference.

What is a major strength of naturalistic observation?

High external validity.

What is a major weakness of naturalistic observation?

Low internal validity.

What is external validity?

The extent to which findings represent the real world.

What is internal validity?

The degree of confidence that the study accurately identifies causes.

What are self-report measures?

Questionnaires, surveys, and rating scales.

What are demographic measures?

Self-report measures that collect information about characteristics such as age, gender, and education.

What are psychometric measures?

Self-report measures that assess psychological traits or abilities.

What are the three major research methods?

Descriptive, correlational, and experimental.

How are correlations commonly displayed?

Using scatterplots.

What is an illusory correlation?

Perceiving a relationship that does not actually exist.

What cognitive bias often contributes to illusory correlations?

Confirmation bias.

What is a spurious correlation?

An apparent relationship that is actually due to chance or another variable.

Why are experiments important?

They allow causal inference.

What are two essential elements of experiments?

Random assignment and manipulation of the independent variable.

What is an independent variable?

The variable manipulated by the researcher.

What is a dependent variable?

The variable measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.

What is random assignment?

Randomly placing participants into different experimental groups.

Which design is generally preferred?

Between-groups design.

What is a confounding variable?

A variable that provides an alternative explanation for the results.

What is the placebo effect?

Changes caused by expectations rather than the treatment itself.

What is the nocebo effect?

Negative effects caused by expectations rather than the treatment itself.

What is the experimenter expectancy effect?

When researchers unintentionally influence participants or results.

What are demand characteristics?

Cues that reveal the study's purpose and influence participant behavior.

What is the role of a research ethics board?

To ensure research follows ethical guidelines.

What is informed consent?

Participants are informed about the study and agree to participate.

Why is protection from harm important?

Researchers must minimize physical and psychological risks.

What is deception in research?

Participants are temporarily misled when necessary for the study.

What is debriefing?

Explaining the true purpose of the study after participation.

What does equity and non-discrimination mean in research?

Participants must be treated fairly and without bias.

Why must vulnerable populations be protected?

They may be at greater risk of coercion or harm.

What is inferential statistics?

Statistics used to draw conclusions about populations from samples.

What are the two key goals of inferential statistics?

Determine whether a sample represents a population and whether findings are unlikely to have occurred by chance.

What is statistical significance?

The probability of observing a result if no true pattern exists (p-value).

What is practical significance?

Whether a finding is meaningful in the real world.

What is the difference between statistical and practical significance?

A result can be statistically significant without being important in practice.

What is a descriptive research design?

A research method that provides a factual snapshot of a phenomenon as it naturally occurs.

What is a correlational research design?

A research method used to examine relationships between two or more variables

What is an experimental research design?

A research method that manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable.