Bicameralism

Two-chamber legislature consisting of the House of Representatives and Senate.

Enumerated / Expressed Powers

Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution.

Implied Powers

Powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Gives Congress flexibility to carry out its enumerated powers.

Speaker of the House

Most powerful member of the House who controls its agenda.

Senate Majority Leader

Key leader who sets the legislative agenda in the Senate.

Standing Committee

Permanent congressional committee that handles legislation in a specific area.

Conference Committee

Temporary joint committee that reconciles House and Senate versions of a bill.

Filibuster

Senate tactic of extended debate used to delay or block legislation.

Cloture

Vote requiring 60 senators to end a filibuster under the usual Senate rule.

Discharge Petition

House procedure used to force a bill out of committee.

Gerrymandering

Drawing congressional district boundaries to favor a political party or group.

Redistricting

Redrawing congressional district boundaries after the census.

Reapportionment

Reallocating House seats among states after the census.

Delegate Model

Model of representation in which lawmakers follow their constituents' wishes.

Trustee Model

Model of representation in which lawmakers use their own judgment.

Politico Model

Model of representation combining the delegate and trustee approaches.

Pork-Barrel Legislation / Earmarks

Government spending directed toward a specific district or project.

Logrolling

Vote-trading among legislators to gain support for legislation.

Oversight

Congressional monitoring of the executive branch and federal bureaucracy.

Power of the Purse

Congress's control over federal spending and taxation.

Advice and Consent

Senate power to confirm presidential nominees and ratify treaties.

Impeachment

Process in which the House brings charges and the Senate holds a trial.

Formal / Enumerated Presidential Powers

Powers explicitly granted to the president by Article II, such as veto power and commander-in-chief authority.

Informal Presidential Powers

Powers developed through practice, such as executive orders and the bully pulpit.

Veto

President's rejection of a bill passed by Congress.

Pocket Veto

President's indirect rejection of a bill by taking no action when Congress adjourns under the required conditions.

Executive Order

Presidential directive that has the force of law.

Signing Statement

Written comments by the president when signing a bill that may explain its interpretation.

Executive Agreement

International agreement made by the president without Senate ratification.

Bully Pulpit

President's use of public visibility and media to influence public opinion and Congress.

Executive Privilege

President's claim that certain executive communications can remain confidential.

Cabinet

Heads of the 15 executive departments who advise the president.

Federalist No. 70

Hamilton's argument supporting a single, energetic executive.

Article III

Article of the Constitution establishing the foundation of the federal judiciary.

Judicial Review

Power of courts to declare laws or government actions unconstitutional.

Marbury v. Madison

Supreme Court case establishing the principle of judicial review.

Federalist No. 78

Hamilton's defense of judicial independence and life tenure.

Life Tenure / Good Behavior

Principle allowing federal judges to serve until resignation, retirement, death, or removal through impeachment.

Original Jurisdiction

Authority of a court to hear a case first.

Appellate Jurisdiction

Authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.

Writ of Certiorari

Order issued by the Supreme Court to review a lower-court case.

Rule of Four

Requirement that four Supreme Court justices agree to hear a case.

Stare Decisis

Principle meaning "let the decision stand," encouraging courts to follow precedent.

Precedent

Prior court decision used as a guide in later similar cases.

Judicial Activism

View that courts should actively protect rights and check other branches.

Judicial Restraint

View that courts should defer to elected branches whenever possible.

Majority Opinion

Official court opinion explaining the decision supported by a majority of justices.

Concurring Opinion

Opinion agreeing with the Court's judgment but offering different reasoning.

Dissenting Opinion

Opinion explaining why a justice disagrees with the Court's majority decision.

Bureaucracy

Hierarchical organization of government agencies that implement federal policy.

Discretionary Authority

Agencies' freedom to decide how to implement and enforce laws.

Rulemaking / Regulations

Process through which agencies create detailed rules that have the force of law.

Iron Triangle

Stable relationship among a government agency, congressional committee, and interest group.

Issue Network

Broader and more flexible group of actors influencing policy in a particular area.

Congressional Oversight

Hearings, investigations, and funding control used to monitor federal agencies.

Patronage / Spoils System

Awarding government jobs based on political loyalty.

Merit System / Civil Service

Hiring and promoting government employees based on qualifications rather than political connections.

How does life tenure protect judicial independence and create debate about the Supreme Court's power?

Life tenure protects judges from political pressure because they do not face reelection. However, it raises concerns about accountability because justices can serve for decades without being elected.

What is the difference between formal and informal presidential powers, and why has presidential power expanded?

Formal powers are explicitly granted by the Constitution, such as vetoing bills. Informal powers develop through practice, such as executive orders and the bully pulpit. Presidential power has expanded because of national crises, increased government responsibilities, and public expectations.

How do the filibuster, cloture, veto, and judicial review serve as checks on government power?

A filibuster delays or blocks Senate legislation, while cloture can end debate. A presidential veto blocks legislation passed by Congress, and judicial review allows courts to declare laws or government actions unconstitutional.

How do discretionary authority and rulemaking allow the bureaucracy to shape public policy?

Discretionary authority allows agencies to decide how laws are enforced, while rulemaking allows agencies to create detailed regulations that carry out laws.

How do iron triangles and issue networks illustrate interactions among government branches and outside actors?

Iron triangles show stable relationships between congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups. Issue networks involve a broader and more flexible group of participants influencing government policy.