Social psychology

the study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behavior influence, and are influenced by, the behavior of others.

Attribution bias

quick ways of interpreting others that help us navigate the social world efficiently, though not always accurately

Attribution theory

a framework used to explain the actions of others as the result of either dispositional or situational causes

Dispositional/internal attributions

when another's behavior is assumed to be a result of their personality traits and characteristics

Situational or external attributions

the perception that a person's behavior is caused by the environment or other situational pressures

Actor-observer bias

We are more likely to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional or internal causes, compared to the attributions we make for our own behavior

Self-serving bias

describes how we tend to divert blame for a bad outcome from our own traits onto an external factor, and also how we tend to take credit for good outcomes by attributing them to our own abilities and minimizing external factors

Kelley's covariation model

asserts that a single exposure to a person is insufficient to form accurate attributions; we need to observe their behavior in a variety of contexts

Three factors used in making attributions

Consistency, Distinctiveness, and Consensus

Consistency

looks at how a person acts in the same situation or context across time

Distinctiveness

determines whether the person behaves similarly across different situations and contexts

Consensus

compares the extent to which an individual's behavior resembles the behavior of others

most common error made in individualistic cultures (USA)

the fundamental attribution error: a bias to explain others' behavior by attributing it to their disposition, our own to our situation

Collectivist cultures (East Asia) focus on ____ to explain behaivor?

group actions/contextual cues

Fundamental attribution error (FAE)

the tendency to overestimate dispositional causes and underestimate situational factors when explaining other people's actions

False consensus effect

occurs when we overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs

Impression formation

addresses how we formulate opinions about individuals or groups

First impression

the tendency for our initial impression that we have about other persons to be rapid and enduring

Primary effect

the initial information learned about another person has the strongest effect on impression formation

Negativity bias

the tendency to pay more attention to negative experiences than positive ones

Confirmation bias

the tendency to pay attention to information consistent with one's existing beliefs and ignore or discard information inconsistent with their beliefs

Self-fulfilling prophecy

when desired outcomes are more likely to occur because we unwittingly act in ways to bring them about

Attitudes

represent variations in thoughts, ideas, and opinions

Cognitive

addresses the thoughts one may have about someone or something

Affective

includes one's feelings about that person or thing

Behavioral

actions taken because of the attitude

Cognitive dissonance theory

a physiological discomfort that arises when our behaviors don't align with our attitudes or beliefs

dissonance reduction

people are motivated to reduce discomfort, often by taking the easiest route, which is shifting their thoughts/attitudes rather than changing their behavior

Reduce dissonance by

○ Changing the behavior ○ Changing the attitude ○ Distort the attitude ○ Distort the behavior

Social influence

the process by which our thoughts and behaviors are shaped by others

Elliot Aaraonson with dissonance reduction

○ He was beat up as a kid for being Jewish ○ If those kids got to know him, would they like him better? ○ If they liked him, would they be less mean to all Jewish people?

social categorization

adjusting your behavior to match what stereotypes you hold. ex) ○ Speak louder to old people ○ Ask locals for directions

Social norms

the unspoken rules that guide how we're expected to behave in different situations

Group effects

the broad influence that the presence or behavior of others has on our actions, effort, and emotions--whether enhancing, diminishing, or shaping how we behave in social settings

Social facilitation

the phenomenon where people tend to perform better on well-practiced tasks when they are being watched by others

Social impairment

occurs when the presence of others hinders performance--especially on complex or high-stakes tasks

Social loafing

group effect in which individuals exert less effort when working in a group because responsibility is diffused

Social facilitation

Robert Zajonc's theory that the presence of others increases arousal. The arousal strengthens your dominant response, meaning that if something is easy or familiar your performance improves but if it is difficult or new your performance gets worse

Solomon Asch Conformity Experiments

participants were asked to compare a standard line to three other lines and say which one matched its length-- people often agreed with the group's incorrect answer even when the correct answer was obvious

Conformity

the tendency to change one's behavior, attitudes, or beliefs to match those of others--especially in response to real or imagined group pressure. People often conform to fit in, avoid conflict, or because they assume the group must be right

Groupthink

occurs when the group prioritizes conformity, often resulting in terrible outcomes.

Illusion of invulnerability

the false belief that the group is so competent or unified that nothing can go wrong. This overconfidence increases risk-taking and leads members to underestimate real dangers

Direct pressure on dissenters

the tendency to pressure or silence group members who express doubts or alternative ideas. Dissenters are made to feel unwelcome or disloyal for challenging the consensus

Self-censorship

when individuals keep their concerns or opinions to themselves because they assume the group already agrees or that their ideas must be wrong

Collective rationalization

minimize and/or disregard the warning of others

Belief in inherent morality

belief that the group is looking out for the greater good

Stereotyped views

hold negative views of out-groups and have high in-group favoritism

Illusion of unanimity

the false impression that everyone in the group agrees, often because those with doubt remain silent. This makes the group appeared more unified than it actually is

Self-appointed 'mindguards'

some group members want to protect the leader and the group by enforcing group cohesiveness and quashing dissenting ideas

Group polarization

the tendency for people in a like-minded group to shift toward more extreme opinions or decisions after discussing an issue together

confirmation bias

the tendency to seek out, favor and remember information that supports what we already believe, while ignoring or dismissing information that contradicts those beliefs.

America in One Room

nationally representative sample of American voters for a weekend of discussions on divisive political issues. Through exercises like briefing materials and small-group deliberations, participants tend to become less extreme, with 54% of participants agreeing that people who hold differing opinions have "good reasons" for doing so--an increase from 34% before the event.

The Milgrim Experiment

"shocking" people and being told to continue by the researcher to test if moral belief will overcome authoritative order- 65% of participants continued until the end

Philip Zimbardo and his prison experiment

24 participants were randomly assigned as a guard or a prisoner. Prisoners were placed in a mock jail and referred to as numbers only. The guards were provided attire and items that were designed to make them embody their social role, including a prison guard uniform, sunglasses, and a wooden club. They were not allowed to physically harm the prisoners or deny them food or water but they could exert their power through having them do endless exercises, strip down naked, do dirty chores, and making them sleep on cold concrete.

Alex Haslam and Steve Reicher's BBC Prison Study

replication of Zimbardo's classic study. Participants were free to leave at any time in the study and the researchers did not intervene to steer behavior. Participants began to enact oppressive roles when group identity and legitimacy of authority were emphasized.

Diffusion of responsibility

in the context of bystander effect, as the number of people present increases, the relative level of accountability of each person decreases. When only one person is present, they assume 100% of the responsibility

Bystander effect

a person in need is less likely to receive help as the number of people who are present increases

Pluralistic ignorance

people look to others to act when unsure of what to do---but others may also be unsure of what to do

Employment discrimination

the unfair or unequal treatment of individuals in the workplace based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other protected categories--rather than on merit or job qualifications. It can occur at any stage of employment, including hiring, promotion, pay, job, assignments, and termination

Stereotypes

attitudes and opinions about people based on their group affiliation

Heterogeneous

when group members are diverse and possess a mix of different characteristics

Homogeneous

when members of a group are highly similar (or perceived as highly similar)

Out-group homogeneity bias

the tendency to perceive members of other groups (out-groups) as more similar to one another than members of your own group (in-group). People often see their own group as diverse and made up of unique individuals, but view members of other groups as all alike--leading to overgeneralizations and stereotyping

ingroup favoritism

The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups

Automatic processing (system 1)

fast, little effort, often used when cognitive resources are unavailable

Controlled processing (system 2)

slow, requires effort, can only be done when time and effort are expended

Machismo stereotype

the stereotype that Latino men are low-skilled laborers, affiliated with gangs, and overly aggressive

Other-race effect

an example of the out-group homogeneity effect which occurs when people perceive members of another racial group as all looking alike

Stereotype threat

occurs when a person or group experiences significant fear of confirming negative expectations about one's own social group, which ultimately adversely affects performance

Prejudice

a negative attitude toward a person or group based solely on their membership in a particular social category (such as race, gender, religion). Prejudice often includes emotional responses like fear, disgust, or hostility, and is typically based on stereotypes rather than individual traits

Sexual prejudice

negative attitudes based on someone's actual or perceived sexual orientation

Vicarious conditioning

a type of learning that occurs by observing how others are rewarded or punished for their behavior. In the context of prejudice, people may develop negative attitudes toward a group not through direct experience, but by watching others express fear, disgust, or hostility--especially if those reactions go unchallenged or are socially reinforced

Contact hypothesis

the theory that prejudices between groups can be reduced through meaningful, positive interaction with members of those groups. According to research, contact is most effective when it involves equal status, cooperation toward shared goals, and support from authority figures or social norms. Simply put, getting to know people from different backgrounds can challenge stereotypes and promote empathy

Discrimination

adverse behaviors directed at groups towards which one holds negative and prejudicial beliefs

Employment discrimination

○ identical resumes with traditionally "white-sounding" names (Greg, Emily) received 50% more callbacks than those with "Black-sounding" names (Jamal, Lakisha)

Medical discrimination

○ a 2016 study by Hoffman found that most white medical students and residents endorsed false beliefs about biological differences between Black and White people. ex) black people have thicker skin or have less sensitive nerve endings

Scapegoating

blaming a less powerful person or group for problems they didn't cause, often as a way to release frustration or avoid confronting the true source of the issue

Realistic conflict theory

the idea that prejudice and conflict arise when groups compete for limited resources, such as jobs, money, or power--leading to increased tension and hostility between them

In-group

the group that a person belongs to; it is perceived to be superior to other groups

The Robbers Cave experiments

supported realistic conflict theory because two groups of boy scouts who had been competitive with one another and even getting aggressive, when working towards a common goal, were seen decreasing discriminatory behavior towards one another

Mere exposure effect

interacting with (being exposed to) a person more often tends to lead to liking that person more

Reciprocal liking

the mere belief of mutual interest can enhance attraction, affecting emotional and cognitive engagement.

Aggression

any behavior intended to harm another person, either physically or psychologically. Aggression can be direct or indirect, and may be driven by anger (hostile aggression) or used as a tool to achieve a goal (instrumental aggression)

Instrumental aggression

using aggression simply as a means to a greater goal

Hostile aggression

using aggression to cause harm to others

Altruism

helping others without expecting anything in return, often at a personal cost. Altruistic behavior is motivated by concern for others' well-being rather than personal gain

Heritability of aggression

50-60% attributed to genetic factors

Prosocial behaviors

helping others without the expectation of anything in return

Reciprocal altruism

a form of cooperation in which one individual helps another with the expectation that the favor will be returned in the future.

Reciprocity norm

the idea that if others help us, then we should provide something in return

Food-in-the-door (FITD) technique

a persuasion strategy that involves securing compliance with a small initial request to increase the likelihood of agreement with a larger request later on

Door in the face (DITF) technique

persuasion strategy where an individual is first presented with a large, likely-to-be-refused request, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request

Lowballing technique

persuasive strategy where an individual is initially presented with an attractive offer, only for additional costs or less favorable terms to be introduced after the person has already committed.

Anchoring

an initial large request sets a reference point (anchor), which then affects how subsequent requests are perceived

Central route processing

occurs when people carefully evaluate the quality of arguments because they are highly involved or motivated

Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann study

High involvement participants focus on the strength of the message itself (strong arguments) whereas low involvement participants are more influenced by peripheral cues, like a celebrity endorsement or superficial factors