Theory of the Good

Pleasure is all that matters.

Narrowness Objection

The idea that certain theories over simplify morality. Other things, such as virtue and human excellence, matter, not just pleasure.

Agency Objection: Experience Machine

Nozick believes it is important for us to choose our own destiny.

Evil Pleasures Objection

Some people get pleasure out of evil/harmful things. Priority of the Right over the Good.

Mill's Hedonism Objectionable?

There isn't a consensus, not all pleasures are on the same scale, hard to practice, social circumstances influence preferences (geographical, historical, class).

Theory of the Right

People have inherent rights that need to be respected.

Over-demandingness Objection

It is unreasonable to maximize happiness every single day. You can't do everything to the best of your ability.

Supererogation Objection

The idea of going above and beyond what is good. This doesn't work because if what's "good" is your best, you can't go above and beyond your best.

Negative Responsibility

You are responsible for your own actions. Not only are you responsible for not causing harm, but also for the good left undone.

Agent-centered Responsibility

Says that the agent's character and intentions influence whether or not the action is moral.

Counterintuitive Implications

Outcomes are not immediately obvious and often go against common sense or initial intuitions about a situation.

Act Utilitarianism

Involves taking maximum pleasure and applying it to every case.

Rule Utilitarianism

In order to truly maximize pleasure, society has to follow a certain set of rules (don't lie, cheat, harm, etc.)

Sidgwick

Sidgwick says only elites can follow Act, everyone should follow Rule.

R.M. Hare's Two-Level Philosophy

Combine Act and Rule, use Rule mostly, but use Act in certain situations.

The Good Will/Acting in duty

Doing the right thing for the right reason.

Conformity of Duty

Doing the right thing for the wrong reason,

Hypothetical Imperative

A moral rule that applies only when you want a certain outcome. (Ex. you want to be healthy, so you work out regularly.)

Categorical Imperative

Unconditional rules that must be followed regardless of personal desire.

The Formula of Universal Law

One should act only according to maxims that can be universally applied without contradiction.

The Procedure

What is the maxim? Is it rational to universalize it? If so, the action is permitted. If not, the action is prohibited.

Repaying a loan/Helping others

A moral duty.

Kant's insight in the first formulation of the categorical imperative

It is morally arbitrary for us to perform acts that we would not want others to do be allowed to perform.

Human Worth is

Absolute

The Formula of Humanity

“So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.”

Means

Using someone for help. Good.

Mere Means

Using someone for personal gain without regards to their dignity. Bad.

Positive Agreement with Humanity

Helping when you're able to help despite limitations of society.

Negative Agreement with Humanity

Absence of external restraints on one's actions.

Inquiring Murderer

A murderer comes to your door and says he's going to kill your friend. To save your friends life, you lie and say he's not there. Is this morally correct? Kant says no.

Absolute Deontology

Strict adherence to moral rules.

Moderate Deontology

Only certain moral rules need to be followed.

Two-Thumbs Up Test

Treat people as ends in themselves and not using people as a mere means.

False Positive

When something passes the two-thumbs up test, but shouldn't.

False Negative

When something doesn't pass the two-thumbs up test, but should.

Virtue as Abiding States of Character

Focuses on the development of good character traits rather than following rules.

Moral Virtues

Good character traits and moral actions.

Intellectual Virtues

Good intellectual character traits.

Truly Virtuous Act

1) We must have knowledge of what is virtuous. 2) We must choose virtuous acts for their sake (because they are virtuous). 3) We must act from a virtuous character in choosing the acts.

Importance of Upbringing

Upbringing shapes a person and what values and morals they have.

The Doctrine of Mean

Courage, Liberty, Anger No mean of the bad Destruction of character

Happiness

The self-sufficient human good, virtue and a good life.

The Problem of Guidance

“an action is right if it is what a virtuous person would do in the circumstances.” But is that enough?

Virtue Objection 1

Concentrates too much on pleasure and happiness of the individual moral agent.

Virtue Objection 2

Makes virtue too dependent on external factors such as wealth.

Virtue Objection 3

Not action-guiding.

Virtue Objection 4

Overlooks the importance of rituals.

Virtue Objection 5

Humans lack stable character traits.

Hursthouse's response to the action-guiding objection:

Virtue ethics helps us see that what matters in the moral evaluation of our actions is how we deliberate about the dilemmas we face.