Learning

enduring any change in the way a organism responds, based on its own experience

What are the three key elements of learning

Adaptation/change Enduring necessary for survival

what is a key issue of learning

learning is not observed - but inferred from an organisms behaviour

reflex

A behaviour that is automatically elicited by an environmental stimulus - eg. blink when something approaches eye

Habituation

the reduction in response strength of a reflex over repeated presentation of stimulus.

Classical conditional - AKA pavlovian conditioning

learning a new association between two previously unrelated stimuli. All responses are reflexes or autonomic responses elicited by environmental stimulus

autonomic responses

nausea and emotion

Classical Conditioning Model

BEFORE CONDITIONING: unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response eg. dog see food dog salivate DURING CONDITIONING: neutral stimulus added the the unconditioned stimulus - repeated. eg. bell rung same time dog food appears. AFTER CONDITIONING:: conditioned stimulus and conditioned response eg. dog hear bell, salivate - knows food is coming.

USC MEANING

Unconditioned stimulus - a stimulus that creates an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

USR MEANING

Unconditioned response - an unlearned reaction to an unconditional stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning.

CS MEANING

conditioned stimulus - a previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to elicit a conditioned response

CR

conditioned response - a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning

acquisition def

the process of acquiring the new association between the stimulus and the response

What can be conditioned using classical conditioning?

Behaviour - preference and avoidance behaviour Physiology - heart rate, skin conductance, muscle tension Emotions - arousal, liking Cognitions - law of prediction, formulation of plans to cope with UCR

Taste aversions

A learned aversion to a taste associated with unpleasant feeling such as nausea. Can happen after only one occurrance unlike classical conditions.

acquisition phase

the process of pairing a CS with UCS - 3 temporal relations: simultaneous conditioning forward conditioning backward conditioning

simultaneous conditioning

USC and CS begin and end together eg. bell is rung same time food is presented

forward conditioning

CS begins just before UCS eg. bell rung slightly before food delivered Allows organism to predict and prepare for the outcome of the CS This produces the best results

backward conditioning

USC begins before CS begins eg. food given before bell is rung

Extinction

Extinction supresses a conditioned response (CR) but CR is not unlearned. if the unconditioned response is not presented the conditional stimulus will gradually lose its ability to elicit a conditional response. eg. bell presented without food enough times negates the conditioning TIME TAKEN may differ depending on the strength of the conditioned response when extinction begins

How are phobias treated using extinction

as fear in phobia is done - this extinction of fear is usually done in steps. Eg. for spider it may be look at picture, hold live one in jar, sit in a room with one, then hold one.

Spontaneous recovery

If there is a break after extinction, a conditional response will be shown upon another presentation of the conditioned stimulus this 'recovery' response will be typically smaller than before extinction. The longer the delay, the larger the spontaneous recovery.

Renewal Effect

The conditioned response is extinguished in a DIFFERENT environment to the Acquisition environment, and the extinguished response will reappear when returning to the acquisition environment.

Stimulus generalisation

Organisms learned a response to the specific stimulus responds the same way to a New - similar stimulus Generally adaptive - but doesn't usually produce the same large response to the similar stimulus. eg. dogs responded to similar tones for food.

Little Albert

Baby playing with white rat - happy. Introduced loud hammer. Put those together - the baby developed a fear of the rat.

Conditioned emotional responses

In the little albert case, his fear extended to other white furry things, such as bunnies, white coats, etc.

Generalisation gradient

The more similar a stimulus to the conditioned stimulus = the larger the conditioned response.

What is the opposite of stimulus generalisation?

discrimination

Discrimination

Refers to a stimulus not similar enough to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a response.

Applications of classical conditioning

CHEMO - > nausea FOOD + CHEMO - > Nausea FOOD - > nausea can be counteracted by giving a peculiar ice cream to the patient so that is the only food effecting them.

3 factors affecting conditioning

Stimulus contingency/inter-stimulus interval Individual learning history biological preparedness

Stimulus contingency/inter-stimulus interval

time between presentations of the CS and UCS Order of presentation - forward conditioning is the most effective

Individual learning history

prior history with the stimuli = previously extinguished associations are easier to learn than 'new' associations blocking - failure to elicit a CR when combined with another stimulus that already elicits the CR. Latent inhibition - initial exposure to netural stimulus without UCS slows later learning of CS-UCS association and developing CR

biological preparedness to learn

referred to as prepared learning - biologically wired to learn some associations more easily than others

Operant conditioning

refers to changes in behaviour that occur as a result of the consequences of the behaviour.

difference between operant and classical conditioning?

Classical - study of associations between stimuli Operant - study of goal oriented behaviour

what is the law of effect?

created by thorndike. Behaviour leading to a desired state are strengthened, while behaviours leading to unsatisfactory states are weakened. Eg. first time cat escape - tries many method, scratching, clawing, before lever over time cat tried less of those methods and more of the lever

Operant responses

voluntary in nature emitted by the subject rather than elicited by the environment

What does a cumulative recorder do?

Plots a curve of the response rate over time.

What do the different curves on the cumulative recorder show?

Steep curve - indicates rapid rate of responding Less steep curve - slower rate of responding Flat curve - no response made

What did skinner believe

behaviour can be classified into two subcategories; respondent (reflexive) operant (voluntary)

Reinforcement

environmental stimulus that occurs after the behaviour increase likelihood behaviour will occur in the future

What are the two types of reinforcement?

Positive and negative

Explain positive reinforcement

pleasant stimulus presented after a behaviour increases likelihood behaviour will occur in the future eg. rat press button = food drop into cage = more likely to press button again

Explain negative reinforcement

removes an aversive stimulus to strengthen the response. Eg. bottom of cage is electric, rat presses button, electric shock stops. OR headache, take meds, headache goes away

What are the different reinforcers?

Primary and secondary reinforcers

Explain primary reinforcers

has innate reinforcing qualities - not learned. Eg. water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, touch, affection, etc.

Explain Secondary reinforcers

Have no inherent value - only reinforcing qualities when paired with a PRIMARY reinforcer. Eg. Praise, linked to affection Money - as paper doesn't do much. But linked to one of our primary needs it works out.

Punishment

Makes behaviour less likely to occur. Can be positive or negative

Explain positive punishment

presenting an aversive stimulus after behaviour - reduces behaviour likelihood eg. speeding ticket = less likely to speed

Explain negative punishment

The removal of pleasant stimulus after a behaviour - reduces behaviour likelihood eg. acting out = removing devices.

What are some of the issues with punishment?

1. learner may not understand which behaviour is being punished eg. dog comes over and owner tells it off for not coming fast enough, dog confused why its being punished 2. Learners may fear the punisher rather than associate between the action and punishment. eg. dog may avoid you as it associates you with punishment rather than action 3. punishment may not undo existing rewards for behaviour eg. detention in class but peer approval (reinforcement)

What is more effective in promoting behaviour?

Reinforcement is more effective in changing behaviour

How can punishment become more effective?

1. Applying punishment quickly 2. Severity of punishment high enough to weaken desired response 3. consistency 4. minimising dependence on physical punishment

Define Shaping

A procedure in which complex behaviour is changed by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of desired response. ONLY works with positive reinforcement eg. want dog to get paper from lawn - treat everytime they pick the paper up, then treat when they bring it to feet etc. small actions SHAPE behaviour

What is chaining?

Linking each action to each other in a particular order to get the desired behaviour.

What is Continuous reinforcement schedules

reinforcer is obtained after every response good for training new behaviour

What is Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement schedules

reinforcer is NOT obtained for every response more resistant to extinction, behaviour persists for longer eg. Pellet drops for the rat every SECOND push of the button.

What are the four different types of schedules used for conditioning using intermittent or partial reninforcement?

Interval: a) fixed: reinforced after a specific time period b) variable: reinforced after an average time period Ratio: a) Fixed: Reinforced every nth response b) Variable: on average, reinforced after every number of responses

Fixed Interval scheduling

When behaviour is rewarded after a set amount of time eg. someone is paid hourly Leads to higher quality of output.

Variable interval schedule

subject gets the reinforced based on varying and unpredictable amount of time. eg. people who like fishing - you don't know WHEN it will occur

Fixed ratio schedule

A set number of responses must occur before the behaviour is rewarded eg. paid for every fruit you pick, encourages faster picking in order to make more money. Leads to high quantity of output

Variable ratio schedule

the number of responses needed for a reward varied. Most powerful form of intermittent reinforcement schedule. eg. Slot machines in casinos. Machine is set to pay out an average of win ratio - say 1/5 but doesn't guarantee every fifth bet will be rewarded.

What is the typical response pattern for fixed ratio?

Predictable - produces a high response rate with a short pause after reinforcement

What is the typical response pattern for variable interval?

unpredictable - produces moderate steady response rate

What is the typical response pattern for fixed interval?

creates a sort of scallop shaped pattern - significant pause after reinforcement.

Discriminative stimuli

the presence of a certain stimuli has to be present for the behaviour to be made

Stimulus generalisation

responding increases in the presence of new stimuli that resemble original discriminative stimulus

Stimulus discrimination

responding does not increase in the presence of new stimuli that resemble original discriminative stimulus.

What are some applications of operant conditioning?

Behavioural therapy eg. reducing tantrums, quitting smoking Behavioural modification eg. remedial education, therapy for autism, etc.

Social learning (AKA observational learning)

learning by observing the behaviour of others

What factors influence the imitation of a model's behaviour?

Prestige of model likeability and attractiveness of the model whether the model was rewarded or punished for his/her behaviour (vicarious conditioning

Albert Bandura: Bobo doll experiment

Two groups of children Group 1 watched an adult act aggressively towards the doll Group 2 watched a non-aggressive model OUTCOME: Group 1 acted aggressively towards the doll, group 2 did not.

What are the four key principles in social learning?

1. must pay attention to model and the consequences 2. retention of observed response in memory until a similar situation occurs 3. ability to reproduce response 4. motivation to produce response.

What are the applications of observational learning?

Survival Behavioural intervention programs - eg. big brother/sister programs motor skill learning - eg. learning guitar

What does cognitive social theory argue?

that we form expectancies about the consequences of our behaviours

Locus of control

the expectancy of whether or not fate determines outcomes in life Internal: believes actions determine fate external: believes lives are governed by forces outside of their control

Learned helplessness - what did this experiment do/show?

EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION: Dogs harnessed to be shocked and dogs eventually gave up - stopped struggling. CONTROL CONDITION - dogs were not exposed to inescapable shocks. 2nd day the dogs were placed in a box where escape was possible - the control group learned to escape, the experimental group didn't attempt to escape. Seligman argued that learned helplessness is central to human depression