What can alter the status of memory between storage and retrieval?

Passage of time, intervening knowledge/experience, and misinformation.

Who is known for the forgetting function in memory research?

Hermann Ebbinghaus.

What is hindsight bias?

The tendency for knowledge of current events to bias judgments and memory of prior processes.

What did Snyder & Uranowitz (1978) study about memory?

They assessed memory for a case history about 'Betty K' after participants were given different labels about her sexual orientation.

What effect did intervening knowledge have in the study by Davis et al. (2005)?

Participants who were told the couple had broken up or that one was dead had different recall accuracy about the conversation.

What is the Standard Misinformation Procedure?

A method where participants experience an event, receive misleading information, and are then interviewed about the event.

What was the outcome of Loftus & Banaji's (1989) study on misinformation?

Almost one third of misinformed participants incorporated misinformation into their memory reports.

What percentage of witnesses engage in co-witness discussions according to Paterson & Kemp (2006)?

86% of witnesses.

What are possible advantages of co-witness discussions?

They may prompt recall of forgotten details, reinforce memory, aid recovery from trauma, and create a more accurate overall picture.

What are possible disadvantages of co-witness discussions?

They may contaminate independent recollection, weaken the prosecution case, and lead to collusion.

What did Gabbert, Memon, & Allan (2003) find in their co-witness study?

71% of participants in the discussion condition reported items they had not seen.

What is the Illusory Truth Effect?

The phenomenon where repeating a statement increases belief in its truth.

What did Allport (1947) demonstrate about retelling events?

Participants transposed characters in their retellings of a witnessed event.

What are the possible mechanisms of misinformation?

1) Reporting misinformation knowingly, 2) Original memory overwritten, 3) Two memories with one less accessible, 4) No original memory.

What did McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985) change in the standard misinformation procedure?

They presented participants with a choice between the correct item and a novel item instead of misinformation.

What did Zajac et al. (2016) find regarding co-witness influence?

Participants were more likely to accept misinformation from a sober co-witness than a drunk one when they had a pre-misinformation response.

What did Assefi & Garry (2003) discover about alcohol and misinformation susceptibility?

Participants who believed they consumed alcohol were more susceptible to misleading information.

What is the implication for eyewitness evidence?

Eyewitness evidence should be treated with the same caution as physical evidence due to potential distortions.

What does the term 'misinformation' refer to in memory studies?

Incorrect or misleading information that can alter a person's memory of an event.

What is the role of media in misinformation?

Media can provide misleading information that participants may incorporate into their memories.

What is the significance of the TWA Flight 800 example in misinformation research?

It illustrates how misinformation can spread and affect public memory of events.

What does the term 'co-witness discussion' mean?

Conversations between witnesses that can influence their recollection of an event.

What is the impact of intervening experiences on memory recall?

They can lead to errors in memory, such as label-consistent errors.

What did the study by Loftus demonstrate about memory for a car accident?

Participants misremembered details based on misleading questions about the color of the car.

What is the effect of time on memory retrieval?

The passage of time can lead to memory decay and distortion.

What is the primary purpose of co-witness discussions according to witnesses?

To provide information.

Why is eyewitness testimony significant in the US legal system?

77,000 people become defendants each year solely based on eyewitness testimony.

What has DNA exoneration revealed about eyewitness evidence?

Eyewitness evidence is particularly fallible.

What is a notable case example that highlights issues with eyewitness testimony?

The Washington Sniper case.

What are the three components of eyewitness memory?

Perception, Memory (Encoding, Storage, Retrieval).

How do our brains process sensory information?

The brain reorganizes and interprets neural impulses, seeking meaning and confirmation.

What role do schemas play in perception?

Schemas direct attention to relevant information, facilitate understanding, and guide information retrieval.

What can activate schemas and influence perception?

Past experiences, stereotypes, expectations, beliefs, and context.

What is the potential for error in eyewitness memory?

Schemas may be chronically activated or temporarily influenced, leading to misinterpretation of stimuli.

What was the design of the Fraser (2011) study?

Participants were primed to believe different narratives about the David Bain case, influencing their perceptions.

How did priming affect participants' perceptions in the Fraser study?

Participants' perceptions of the audio clip were significantly influenced by the information they received.

What was a key finding regarding the audio clip in the Fraser study?

Only four participants from one group heard David say 'I shot the prick' despite the claim.

What is the impact of acute concerns on schema activation?

Acute concerns can trigger the activation of schemas that influence perception.

What is an example of how schemas can lead to errors in memory?

Schemas important to self-concept may distort incoming stimuli interpretation.

What is the effect of context on perception?

The brain interprets information based on existing knowledge and context.

What is the relationship between beliefs and schemas?

Beliefs and expectations shape schemas that guide perception and understanding.

What is the significance of the 'stop thief' statement in eyewitness memory?

It can activate schemas that influence how witnesses perceive and recall events.

How does the brain's interpretation of stimuli differ from a video recording?

The brain does not record stimuli like a video camera; it reorganizes and interprets information.

What is the role of past experiences in shaping perception?

Past experiences inform how stimuli are perceived and interpreted.

What is the definition of schemas in the context of memory?

Schemas are beliefs and expectations about objects, people, and events that guide perception.

How can recently activated schemas affect new information processing?

Recently activated schemas may remain active and influence how new information is processed.

What was the main finding of Payne (2001) regarding racial priming?

Participants primed with a black face were quicker to categorize weapons and more likely to mistakenly identify tools as weapons.

What did Correll et al. (2002) find in their computer simulation study?

Participants were more likely to shoot at unarmed black individuals than unarmed white individuals, indicating racial bias.

How can environmental or health conditions affect eyewitness perception?

They may impact how we perceive or interpret forensically relevant events.

What does selective attention refer to in the context of eyewitness memory?

It refers to the phenomenon where individuals focus on certain aspects of an event while ignoring others, leading to potential memory gaps.

What is the effect of salience on eyewitness memory according to Leippe, Wells, & Ostrom (1978)?

Eyewitnesses made more accurate identifications when the crime was perceived as more serious.

What does the Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908) suggest about stress and memory?

It suggests that there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, with too much or too little stress negatively affecting memory accuracy.

What was the outcome of Loftus & Burns (1982) regarding violent vs. non-violent endings?

Participants who watched a violent ending had poorer memories for details seen immediately before the violence.

What did Wessel & Merkelbach (1997) find regarding spider phobics and memory?

Memory for central events did not differ, but spider phobic participants scored lower on peripheral details.

What is Cue Utilization Theory as proposed by James Easterbrook (1959)?

It states that as stress increases, attention narrows to stress-generating features, affecting memory recall.

What were the findings of Morgan et al. (2004) regarding high vs. low stress interrogations?

Mistaken identifications were made by 51-68% of those under high stress, compared to 12-38% under low stress.

What is the 'Weapon Focus' effect?

It refers to the visual attention that eyewitnesses give to a perpetrator's weapon, which can detract from memory of other details.

What did Loftus, Loftus, & Messo (1987) discover about weapon presence in eyewitness identification?

Participants made more correct identifications in the no weapon condition and fixated longer on the gun than on a chequebook.

What did Pickel (1999) find regarding memory accuracy based on the presence of a weapon?

Witnesses were less accurate about a priest carrying a gun compared to a cellphone, while accuracy for a policeman did not differ by prop.

What factors influence whether perceived information is encoded in memory?

Factors include attention, salience, stress/arousal, and the presence of a weapon.

What does it mean that 'not everything gets in' regarding memory encoding?

It means that a lack of recall may not be due to retrieval issues, but rather that the information was never encoded.

What are some factors that can affect the strength of memory encoding?

Factors include amount of exposure, age, salience, and prior knowledge.

How can expectations and experiences influence eyewitness perception?

They can shape what we perceive and how we interpret events, potentially leading to biases.

What is the significance of the 'change blindness' phenomenon in eyewitness memory?

It illustrates how individuals can fail to notice significant changes in their environment, affecting memory accuracy.

What implications do the findings on stress and memory have for eyewitness testimonies?

They suggest that high stress can impair memory accuracy, raising concerns about the reliability of eyewitness accounts.

What is the impact of stress on memory consolidation according to Loftus & Burns (1982)?

Stress may disrupt memory consolidation, leading to poorer recall of details surrounding a stressful event.

What methodological challenges exist in studying the relationship between stress and memory?

Challenges include ensuring ecological validity, controllability of experiences, and accurate measurement of stress responses.