Clinical Psychology

The branch of psychology that focuses on diagnosing and treating psychological problems

Some psychologists that aren't therapists:

-focus on research, teaching or other areas -Psychiatrists: medical doctors who can prescribe medication

Mind-Body Problem (Main Idea)

The question of whether psychological disorders are mental problems or physical problems involving the brain.

Mind-Body Problem (Important concepts)

-The brain is a physical organ. -Mental disorders affect brain structure, chemistry, and function. -Therefore, many psychologists argue that psychological disorders are also biological disorders.

Examples of Mind-Body problem

-Depression may involve problems with serotonin regulation. -Schizophrenia involves brain abnormalities and genetics.

What is stigma?

A negative stereotype or judgment placed on people with mental illness.

Examples of Stigma

-Calling people "crazy," "lunatics," or "dangerous" -Assuming people with mental illness cannot function normally

Effects of stigma

-Prevents people from seeking treatment -Creates shame and embarrassment -Causes misunderstanding of mental illnesses

Historical Examples of effects of Stigma

-Belief in demon possession -Bloodletting -Drilling holes in skulls to release "evil spirits"

What is considered when psychologists look for abnormal behavior?

- Cultural definition -Legal definition -Social/contextual definition -Ability to function

Cultural Definition (Abnormal behavior)

Behavior is judged based on cultural expectations. Ex. Something normal is one culture may be unusual in another

Legal Definition (Abnormal behavior)

Related to responsibility and insanity Main question: Does the person understand right vs. wrong?

Social / Contextual Definition (Abnormal behavior)

Behavior depends on: -Situation -location -People involved Ex. Yelling at sports game = normal, yelling during a funeral = abnormal

Ability to function (Abnormal behavior)

Psychologists consider: -Can the person take care of themselves? -Can they maintain relationships? -Can they complete responsibilities?

What are the major disorders?

-Substance abuse Disorder -Anxiety Disorder -Mood Disorder -Schizophrenia -Personality Disorders -Eating Disorders

Substance abuse Disorder (Definition and symptoms)

A pattern of substance use that causes significant problems in life Symptoms: -Loss of control -Craving -Life problems -Risky use -Tolerance -Withdrawal

Loss of control (Substance abuse Disorder)

-Using more than intended -Unable to cut down

Craving (Substance abuse Disorder)

-Strong desire to use the substance

Life problems (Substance abuse Disorder)

-Problems at school/work/home -Relationship problems

Risky use (Substance abuse Disorder)

-Using substances despite danger

Tolerance (Substance abuse Disorder)

-Need more of the substance to get the same effect

Withdrawal (Substance abuse Disorder)

-Physical or psychological symptoms when stopping

Anxiety Disorders (General Definition)

Disorders involving excessive fear, worry, or anxiety -One of the most common categories of psychological disorders -Anxiety becomes abnormal when it interferes with daily life

Normal vs. disordered anxiety

Normal: -Helps us respond to danger Disordered: -Excessive -Difficult to control -Causes impairment

Types of Anxiety Disorders

-Phobic disorders -Panic Disorder -Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) -Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Phobic Disorders (Anxiety Disorders)

An intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation Ex. Spiders, heights, public speaking, dogs Fear is: -Excessive -Persistent -leads to avoidance

Types of Phobic Disorders

-Social Phobia -Agoraphobia

Social Phobia (Types of Phobic Disorders)

Fear of social situations or being judged

Agoraphobia (Types of Phobic Disorders)

Fear of open spaces or situations where escape is difficult

Causes for Phobic Disorders

-Genetic factors -Learned behavior Ex. A child sees a parent panic around dogs -> learns dogs are dangerous

Panic Disorder (Anxiety Disorders)

Sudden episodes of extreme fear without an obvious trigger Panic attacks: -Can last seconds to hours -Often feel like a heart attack

Symptoms of Panic disorders

Fight-or-flight activation (sympathetic nervous system): Causes: -heart racing -sweating -shortness of breath -dizziness -stomach problems -feeling of impending death REMEMBER: The person is usually not actually in danger, but the body reacts as if they are.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) (Anxiety Disorders)

Long-term, excessive worry about many areas of life

Characteristics of Generalized Anxiety Disorder

-Constant "what if..." thinking -Worry without a specific cause -Small problems become overwhelming

Symptoms of Generalized Anxiety Disorder

-Restlessness -Stress -Stomach problems -Depression -Trouble relaxing

Treatment for Generalized anxiety Disorder

Cognitive-behavior Therapy (CBT) Works well because it changes: -Negative thoughts -Irrational beliefs -Unhealthy behaviors

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) (Anxiety Disorders)

A disorder involving: -Obsessions -Compulsions

Obsessions Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Unwanted, intrusive thoughts Ex. -fear of germs -Fear of harming someone -Religious doubts -Need for perfection -Constant doubts (Did i lock the door?)

Compulsions Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Repeated behaviors performed to reduce anxiety Ex. -Washing hands repeatedly -Checking locks -Counting -Organizing -Hoarding

Important details about Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

OCD is about control Causes: -Genetics -Fear of losing control Gender: -Equal in men and women Can begin: -Childhood or adulthood

Mood Disorders

Mood = emotional state Mood disorders involve extreme emotional states

Types of Mood Disorders

-Major Depression -Mania -Bipolar Disorder

Major Depression (Mood disorder)

A long-lasting period of sadness and loss of interest NOT normal sadness from: -Breakups -Death -Failure -Losing a job

Symptoms and gender of Severe Depression

-Feelings of worthlessness -Hopelessness -Crying -Sleep problems -Weight changes -Poor concentration -No motivation -Loss of pleasure Women are about twice as likely to experience severe depression

Causes of Severe Depression

-Neurological -Hereditary -Learned Helplessness -Seasonal affective Disorder (SAD)

Neurological (Severe Depression)

Brain chemistry problems Ex. Low serotonin

Hereditary (Severe Depression)

Depression can run in families

Learned Helplessness (Severe Depression)

A person learns they have no control over their situation Ex. Abuse, Neglect, Chronic stress Can lead to: Hopelessness, depression

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) (Severe Depression)

Depression related to seasons Usually: -Winter months -Less sunlight -Reduce vitamin D Treatment: Light therapy

Mania (Mood disorder)

Extreme emotional "High" Can include: -Psychosis -Hallucinations

Symptoms of Mania

-Intense happiness/euphoria -Excess energy -Little sleep -Feeling powerful/invincible -Risky decisions -Grand ideas -Delusions of greatness

Bipolar Disorder (Mood disorder)

Cycles between: Mania (Extreme highs) and Depression (Extreme lows)

Important note and symptoms of Bipolar disorder

Bipolar mood changes usually happen over longer periods Symptoms: -Mood swings -Irritability -Anxitety -Anger

Causes of Bipolar Disorder

Genetics: Very strong hereditary connection Trauma: Can contribute

Treatment for Bipolar Disorder

-Medication is essential -Therapy may help -Lifestyle consistency is important Bipolar disorder: -Lifelong condition -Treatable but not cured

Schizophrenia

A severe disorder involving a break from reality NOT multiple personality disorder

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

-Disturbances of thought -Perceptual disorders -Emotional Disturbances

Disturbances of Thought (Symptoms of Schizophrenia)

Delusions: Strong beliefs with no evidence Ex. Paranoia: Believing: -Government is watching them -People are controlling their thoughts Thought Insertion: Believing thoughts are placed into their mind Thought broadcasting: Believing others can hear their thoughts

Perceptual Disorders (Symptoms of Schizophrenia)

Hallucinations: Experiencing things that are not real Types: -Auditory (Hearing voices) -Visual -Tactile

Emotional Disturbances (Symptoms of Schizophrenia)

Flat affect: Little emotional expression Ex. -Blank facial expression -Reduce emotion Other symptoms: -Inappropriate emotions -Difficulty recognizing emotions

Facts about Schizophrenia

Frequency: -About 1% of population Gender: -Similar rates in men and women Onset: -Late teens to early adulthood Recovery: -Least likely major disorder to fully recover

Causes of Schizophrenia

-Genetics -Prenatal Infection -Toxoplasma gondii -Season of Birth effect -Early Marijuana use -Environment

Genetics (Causes of Schizophrenia)

Ex. Identical twins have about a 48% chance of one twin having schizophrenia Meaning: Genes matter, but not the only factor

Prenatal Infection (Causes of Schizophrenia)

Possible causes: -Viruses -Bacterial infections -Fever during pregnancy

Toxoplasma gondii (Causes of Schizophrenia)

Parasite associated with cat feces Possible pathway: Mother infected -> fetus exposed -> brain development affected

Season of Birth Effect (Causes of Schizophrenia)

More cases among people born during winter months Possible reason: -More viruses -More infections during pregnancy

Early Marijuana use (Causes of Schizophrenia)

Teen marijuana use is associated with increased risk

Environment (Causes of Schizophrenia)

Environment alone does not cause schizophrenia However, it can affect: -Severity -Recovery

Personality disorders (Definition and characteristics)

Long-lasting unhealthy personality patterns Characteristics: -Cause problems in relationships/work -Person often does not recognize the problem

Types of Personality Disorders

-Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) -Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) (commonality and important note)

More common in: Women BPD mood changes happen quickly (minutes/hours/days)

Characteristics of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)

-Unstable identity -Fear of abandonment -Extreme emotions -Black-and-white thinking -Impulsivity

Unstable identity (Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD))

-Unsure who they are -change goals frequently

Extreme emotions (Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD))

-Rapid mood changes -Intense anger

Black-and-white thinking (Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD))

Someone is either: -Perfect OR -Terrible

Impulsivity (Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD))

-Risky behaviors -Spending -Substance use

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (Characteristics)

-Grandiosity -Need for admiration -Lack of empathy -Sense of superiority -Sensitive to criticism

Grandiosity (Narcissistic Personality Disorder)

-Exaggerated self-importance

Sensitive to criticism (Narcissistic Personality Disorder)

Often: -Appear confident -Have underlying insecurity

Eating Disorders

-Obesity -Anorexia Nervosa -Bulimia Nervosa

Obesity (definition and causes)

Excessive body fat Causes: -Genetics -Learned eating behaviors -Environment -Lifestyle -Metabolism/hormones

Anorexia Nervosa (Definition and Causes)

Restriction of food intake caused by distorted body image Causes: -Control issues -Body image problems -Social pressures -Sports/dance environments

Anorexia Nervosa (Characteristics and Commonality)

More common in Women (about 80%) Characteristics: -Extreme fear of gaining weight -Refusal to eat -Desire to be very thin

Bulimia Nervosa (Definition and Characteristics)

Cycle of: 1. Binge eating 2. Purging Characteristics: -Large amounts of food consumed -Vomiting afterward -Often connected with low self-esteem and depression

Main Question of Fallon & Rozin Study (1985)

Could women accurately judge their own body size?

What were women asked to do in Fallon & Rozin Study (1985)?

-Pick the figure most attractive to men -Pick the figure representing themselves

Results of Fallon & Rozin Study (1985)

-Women often underestimated how attractive their own body size was -Many believed men preferred thinner bodies, more so than they actually did

Important concept of Fallon & Rozin Study (1985)

Body image can be distorted by cultural expectations

What is Forensic Psychology? (Definition)

The application of psychology to questions and issues involving the aw and legal system "Forensic" = legal/law-related

Forensic psychologists apply psychological science to...

-Criminal cases -Courts -Corrections -Law enforcement -Victims and offenders

Why is Forensic Psychology More important Today?

Deinstitutionalization: The removal of psychiatric patients from state mental hospitals during the 1970s and 1980s

Why did state mental hospitals close during the 1970s and 1980s?

-Financial reasons -Changes in mental healthcare philosophy -Shift toward community treatment

What were the problems that came with the closing of the state mental hospitals during the 1970s and 1980s?

-Many severely mentally ill people lacked proper support -Some ended up homeless or involved with teh criminal justice system

Major Roles / Specialties in Forensic Psychology

-Violence Assessment -Competency Evaluations -Confidentiality -Involuntary Treatment and Hospitalization

Violence Assessment

Forensic psycholigist may work with: -Anger management -Restraining order cases -Probation -Sex offenders -Violence risk assessments They may evaluate: -Risk of future violence -Mental state -Treatment needs

Competency Evaluations (Definition and main question)

Whether a person is mentally capable of participating in the legal process Does the defendant understand what is happening and can they assist in their own defense?

Evaluated for Competency to Stand Trial (Competency Evaluations)

Can they: -Understand charges? -Understand court procedures? -Work with their lawyers?

Diminished Capacity (Competency Evaluations)

Whether mental illness, low IQ, or neurological problems affected their ability to understand or control behavior

Andrea Yates (Example of Diminished Capacity)

-Mother who killed her children while experiencing severe psychosis -Claimed voices told her to commit the crime -Case showed why competency evaluations are necessary

Importance of Juvenile Competency and why (Competency Evaluations)

Children and teenagers require specialized evaluations -Developing brains -Less understanding of consequences -More vulnerable to suggestion

Police questioning can create... (Competency Evaluations) specifically Juvenile competency*

-False memories -False confessions

Normal Rule of Confidentiality

Psychologists must protect patient confidentiality

What was the exception to the normal rule of confidentiality?

Tarasoff v. Regents of University of California (1974/1976)

What happened during Tarasoff v. Regents of University of California (1974/1976)? (Confidentiality)

-A patient told his psychologist he intended to harm a specific person -Ther psychologist did not warn the victim -The victim was later killed

Court decision (Confidentiality)

Mental health professionals have a duty to warn Ifa patient: -Has a specific threat -Against a specific person The psychologist must: -Warn the potential victim OR -Notify authorities

Involuntary Treatment and Hospitalization

Treatment or hospitalization without the person's consent

Normally vs. Exceptions (Involuntary Treatment and Hospitalization)

Normally: People cannot be hospitalized against their will Exceptions: -They are a danger to themselves -They are a danger to others -They cannot care for themselves

California 5150 Hold

A temporary psychiatric hold

Length and Purpose of California 5150 Hold

Length: 72 hours Purpose: -Evaluation -Stabilization Afterwards: Person must generally be released unless additional legal steps are taken

Insanity vs. Mental Illness

Insanity: A legal term (Refers to the person's mental state at the time of the crime) Mental illness: Having a psychological disorder

Insanity Defense (Definition)

A defendant argues they should not be held responsible because they did not understand right from wrong when committing the crime

Important notions for Insanity Defense and why they are important

Important: -Rarely used -Rarely Successful Reasons: -Difficult to prove -Courts worry people may fake symptoms -Public distrust of mental health professionals

Insanity Defense statistics

Approximately: -Used in about 1% of felon cases -Successful in only a small percentage

Antisocial Personality Disorder (Sociopathy) (Characteristics)

-Lack of empathy -Lack of remorse -Manipulation -Treat people as objects

Lack of empathy (Sociopathy)

Cannot understand or care about others' feelings

Lack of remorse (Sociopathy)

Do not feel guilt after harming others

Manipulation (Sociopathy)

Can appear charming while using people

Treat people as objects (Sociopathy)

Victims are not viewed as real individuals

Narcissism (Definition)

Extreme self-centeredness and inflated self-importance

Characteristics and contributions to Narcissism

-Grandiosity -Feeling superior -Need for admiration -Lack of empathy Extreme narcissism can contribute to: -Seeing oneself as powerful -Believing they control others

Sociopath vs Normal Person

Sociopaths often: -Lack of emotional connection -Lack guilt -Manipulate others -Understand rules but do not care about them

Serial Murders (Important motives)

Serial killers do NOT usually kill because of: -Self-defense -Survival -Accidental circumstances They often kill because of: -Power -Control -Anger -Sexual motivations -Enjoyment of causing harm

Characteristics of Serial Murderers

-Lack of empathy -Sadism -Narcissism -Intelligence and Manipulation

Lack of empathy (Characteristics of Serial Murderers)

They view victims as: -Objects -Less than human

Sadism (Characteristics of Serial Murderers)

Definition: Enjoyment of causing pain or suffering

Narcissism (Characteristics of Serial Murderers)

They may believe: -They have power over life and death -They are superior

Intelligence and Manipulation (Characteristics of Serial Murderers)

Many serial killers: -appear normal -Have real jobs -Have relationships -Blend into society They do NOT usually look like criminals

Causes of Sociopathic Behavior

-Childhood Abuse -Childhood Warning signs -Brain Differences -High Testosterone

Childhood Abuse (Causes of Sociopathic Behavior)

Severe abuse may contribute to later violence

Childhood Warning Signs (Causes of Sociopathic Behavior)

Examples: -Animal cruelty -Fire setting -Conduct problems -Violence toward others -Early sexual behavior

Brain differences (Causes of Sociopathic Behavior)

Frontal Lobe Damage Frontal lobe controls: -Judgement -Impulse control -Decision-making Damage may reduce: -Self-control -Ability to consider consequences

Higher Testosterone (Causes of Sociopathic Behavior)

Associated with: -Aggression -Risk-taking

False confessions and Psychology in Law enforcement

Interrogations can produce false confessions

Risk Factors of False confessions

-Youth -Low IQ -Mental disabilities -Long interrogations -Pressure from authority

Miranda Rights

A person has the right to: Remain silent HAVE AN ATTORNEY PRESENT

Interrogation Tactics

-Claiming they have evidence -Promising leniency -Acting friendly -Creating pressure Psychological problem: People under stress may: -Panic -Seek approval -Confess falsely

Two major categories of Psychological Treatments

-Psychotherapy (Talk Therapy) -Biomedical Treatments

Psychotherapy (Talk Therapy) (Psychological Treatments)

Uses: -Conversation -Therapist-patient relationship -Understanding thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and experiences Important: -A trusting relationship between therapist and patient is essential -Not every therapist works for every person -Treatment often requires trial and error

Biomedical treatments (Psychological Treatments)

Uses: -Medication -Biological interventions -Brain based treatments Ex. -Antidepressants -antipsychotic -Mood stabilizers -Anti-anxiety medications -Electroconvulsive therapy

Types of Psychotherapies (talk-based therapies)

-Psychodynamic Therapy -Behavioral Therapy -Humanistic Therapy -Group Therapy -Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Psychodynamic Therapy

Based on: Sigmund Freud Main idea: Psychological problems come from... -Unconscious conflicts -Childhood experiences -Unfulfilled needs

Techniques of Psychodynamic Therapy

Free Association: Patient says whatever comes to mind Dream Analysis: Examining dreams for unconscious meaning Exploring Childhood: Looking for past experiences influencing current behavior

Therapist role and Weaknesses (Psychodynamic Therapy)

Therapist Role: -Analyze unconscious thoughts -Interpret behavior Weaknesses: -Difficult to scientifically measure -interpretations can be subjective Ex. Two therapists may interpret the same behavior differently

Behavioral Therapy

Based on: Learning theory and conditioning Main idea: Behavior is learning, therefore behavior can be changed

Uses & focus (Behavioral Therapy)

Uses: -Rewards -Punishment -Conditioning Focus: NOT "why did this happen?", instead "What behavior needs to change?" Ex. A smoker wants to quit A Behavioral therapist focuses on: -Replacing smoking habits -Changing triggers -Learning new behaviors

Humanistic Therapy

Main Idea: People have the ability to grow and improve themselves

Focus & Therapist role (Humanistic Therapy)

Focus: -Personal growth -Goals -Self-improvement -Reaching potential (related concept: Self-actualization) Therapist role: -Guide -Supporter -Listener NOT: -Authority Figure -Someone who tells the patient what to do

Usefulness and ineffectiveness of Humanistic Therapy

Useful for: -Personal development -Motivation -Life changes Less effective for: -Severe depression -Bipolar episodes -Psychotic disorders

Group Therapy

Therapy involving multiple people with similar problems Benefits: -Emotional support -Realizing others share similar struggles -Learning from others

Examples of Group therapy

- Family Therapy -Self-help groups Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) Cancer support groups Weigh management groups

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Main Idea: Changes BOTH: Cognition (Thoughts) AND Behavior (Actions)

What does CBT teach people?

-Identify unhealthy thoughts -Replace irrational beliefs -Change harmful behaviors

What is CBT effective for?

-Anxiety disorders Phobias Panic disorder Generalized anxiety disorder -Depression -eating disorders

Systematic Desensitization

A technique withing CBT Purpose: Treat anxiety and phobias

Steps of Systematic Desensitization

1. Learning relaxation techniques Ex. deep breathing, relaxing muscles, changing posture 2. Create a fear hierarchy A list from: Least scary -> Most scary Ex. Fear of dogs -> Least- Picture of dog, video of dog, stuffed dog, real dog -Most 3. Gradual exposure Slowly expose person to the fer while staying relaxed

Effectiveness of Systematic Desensitization

-About 85% effective for anxiety disorders -Can eliminate phobias without medication

Does Talk Therapy Work?

Yes About 90% of patients improve with talk therapy Success depends on: -Type of disorder -Type of therapy -Patient involvement

What is affected with Psychiatric Medications

Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers in the brain Examples: -Serotonin -> mood regulation -Dopamine -> movement, reward, psychosis -GABA -> calming/inhibition

Antipsychotics (Neuroleptics)

Used for disorders involving: -Psychosis -Hallucinations -Delusions -Severe agitation Examples: -Schizophrenia -Mania

How do Antipsychotics work?

Block dopamine activity Ex. Thorazine, Clozapine, Haldol

Important notions & side effects of Antipsychotics

-Dry mouth -Dizziness -Tremors -Weight gain -Sedation -Blunted emotions Important: -Reduce symptoms -Do NOT cure schizophrenia MUST be taken daily

Antidepressants

Used for: -Depression -Anxiety disorders -Panic disorder -Phobias -Postpartum depression

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

Blocks serotonin reuptake so more serotonin remains available in the brain Examples: -Prozac -Zoloft -Paxil -Celexa

Important notions & side effects of SSRIs

-Sedation -Digestive problems -Dry mouth -Dizziness -Sweating -Sexual dysfunction Important: They do NOT work immediately Usually, 4-8 weeks before effects appear

Prozac & Zoloft Safety

Generally safe but: -Not perfect -Have side effects -Require monitoring Special caution: -Children teenagers -people under age 25 People concern: -Increased suicidal thoughts in some younger patients

Atypical Antidepressants

Newer medication such as: Effexor: Blocks serotonin and norepinephrine Remeron: Affects serotonin/norepinephrine Wellbutrin: Used for depression and smoking cessation Important: Higher Seizure Risk

Mood Stabilizers

Used primarily for: Bipolar Disorder Ex. -Lithium -Depakote

Lithium (mood stabilizer)

Most common mood stabilizer Important: -Very effective -Requires careful monitoring

Depakote (mood stabilizer)

Purpose: Prevent extreme mood swings

Anti-Anxiety Drugs

Benzodiazepines Examples: -Xanax -Valium -Ativan -Librium

How do Anti-Anxiety Drugs

Increase activity of GABA GABA: -Calming neurotransmitter -Helps reduce nervous system activity

Use and Side effects of Anti-Anxiety Drugs

Used for: -Short-term anxiety relief -Sleep -Muscle Relaxation Side effects: -Drowsiness -Dependence -Addiction risk Danger: Mixing with alcohol or other depressants can be deadly

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) Aka Shock therapy

A controlled seizure is created using electricity Why does it work? Unknown... Scientists know: -It often works -They do not fully understand why

Uses for Electroconvulsive Therapy

Severe depression AND Severe bipolar disorder Especially when: -Medication does not work -Symptoms are extreme NOT commonly used for: -Anxiety -Mild depression -Most disorders

Procedure and effects of Electroconvulsive Therapy

Procedure: -Patient receives anesthesia -Muscle relaxants are given -Electricity stimulates a seizure Effects: Possible... -temporary memory loss -Confusion -Loss of consciousness

Success rate of Electroconvulsive Therapy

Approximately: 65% success rate

What is social psychology?

The study of how people's -Thoughts -Feelings -Behaviors are influenced by other people

Important ideas abut social psychology

Even people who consider themselves independent are influenced by: -Family -Friends -Culture -Media -Society

Social Perception

How we gather information about other people Examples: -Facial expressions -Appearance -Behavior -Communication

Social Learning

Learning by observing others Example: A child sees another child behave a certain way and copies it

Understanding Others & First Impressions

-Primacy effect -Physical Appearance and Judgements -Halo Effect -Cosmetics, Hair color, and career effects

Primacy Effect

The first information we learn about someone has the strongest influence on our opinion of them Important: First Impressions are: -Formed quickly -Difficult to change Examples: -First day of class -Job interview -First date

Physical Appearance and Judgements

Humans often make quick judgements based on appearance Reasons: -helps us quickly determine if someone is safe, threatening, or approachable. However: These judgements are not always accurate

Halo Effect

The tendency to assume attractive people have other positive qualities Examples: Someone attractive may be judged as: -More intelligent -More successful -More trustworthy Important: Attractiveness does not actually prove these qualities

Cosmetics, Hair Color, and Career Effects

Physical appearance influences judgements Examples: Same woman, Same resume: -Different hair colors -Different makeup People judge her differently.

Facts and important notions (Cosmetics, Hair Color, and Career Effects)

A brunette without makeup was judged as: -More competent -More serious -More committed Important: People are affected by stereotypes about appearance

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Relationship: Stereotype -> Prejudice-> Discrimination Examples: " i believe a group is a certain way" -> "I dislike that group" -> "I treat them unfairly"

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group Examples: -Gender stereotypes -Cultural stereotypes -Occupational stereotypes

Prejudice

A negative attitude or belief toward a group

Discrimination

Negative behavior toward a group

Attribution Theory

The way we explain causes of behavior We ask: "Why did this person do that?"

What are the 2 types of Attribution theory?

1. Internal Attribution 2. External Attribution

Internal Attribution

Explanation based on the person's characteristics Examples: -Personality -Ability -Intentions Example: Someone trips Internal: "They are clumsy"

External Attribution

Explanation based on the situation Examples: -Environment -Circumstances Examples: Someone trips External: "The sidewalk was broken"

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to explain other people's behavior using internal causes while ignoring outside factors Example: Someone arrives late: For someone else: "They are irresponsible" For ourselves: "Traffic was horrible" Important: We judge others more harshly than ourselves

Attitudes and Behavior

Attitude: A belief or feeling about something Examples: -Political beliefs -Opinions -Preferences Important: Attitudes do NOT always predict behavior Ex. Someone believes exercise is important but does not exercise

Persuasion

Changing someone's attitudes or decisions

Central Route to Persusasion

Using: -Facts -Evidence -Logic -Reason to make decisions Example: Researching car safety ratings before buying a car

People using central processing:

-Think critically -Consider evidence

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Using superficial factors instead of evidence Examples: -Appearance -Celebrity endorsement -Emotions -Reputation Examples: -Buying a car because it looks cool -Voting for someone because they seem charming

Similarity

People are often persuaded by those who seem similar to them Example: A politician claiming: "I am just like you"

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Uncomfortable tension caused by: -Conflicting beliefs OR -Behavior that contradicts beliefs

Example of Cognitive Dissonance Theory and ways people reduce it

Example: Belief: "Smoking is unhealthy" Behavior: "I smoke cigarettes Creates discomfort People reduce cognitive dissonance by -Changing behvior -Changing beliefs -Justifying actions

Conformity

Changing beliefs or behaviors to match a group Important: Conformity changes: -Beliefs -Actions because of group pressure

Asch Conformity Experiment

Purpose: Study whether people would follow a group even when the group was wrong

Experiment and task (Asch Conformity Experiment)

Experiment: - 1 real participant -6 confederates (Actors) Task Judge line lengths Actors purposely gave wrong answers

Results & Why did they conform? (Asch Conformity Experiment)

Results: -About 1/3 of trials resulted in conformity -About 75% of participants conformed at least once Why did people conform? -Did not want to stand out -Fear of being judged -Group pressure

Obedience

Changing behavior because an authority figure commands you Important: Behavior changes, not necessarily beliefs. Examples of authority: Police, parents, bosses, military leaders, government

Milgram Obedience Experiment

Would people harm another person because an authority figure told them to?

Experiment & Results (Milgram Obedience Experiment)

Experiment: Participants believed they were giving electrical shocks to another person A researcher in a lab coat instructed them to continue Results: 65% gave the maximum shock

Important notions & Main lesson (Milgram Obedience Experiment)

Important: Partcipants: -Were uncomfortable -Did not enjoy hurting someone -Blamed the authority figure Main lesson: Ordinary people can commit harmful actions under pressure from authority

Prosocial Behavior

Helping behaviors intended to benefit others Examples: -Helping strangers -Donating -Volunteering

Diffusion of Responsibility

The belief that someone else will help, causing individuals to feel less responsible The more bystanders: -> the less likely one person helps

Kitty Genovese Case

A woman was attacked in New York Many people reportedly heard or witnessed parts of the event Few people helped

Why? (Kitty Genovese Case)

Possible factors: -Many witnesses -Assumed someone else would help -Urban environment -Confusion about situation

Bystander effect (Kitty Genovese Case)

Related idea: People are less likely to help when more people are present

Rewards-cost analysis

Before helping, people consider: Rewards: -Feeling good -Saving someone -Social approval Costs: -Danger -Time -Effort

Altruism

Helping others even when it involves personal sacrifice

Characteristics of altruistic people:

-Empathy -Sympathy -Confidence -Ability to help -Independent thinking -Moral concern for others Important: Altruistic people are NOT necessarily: -More religious -Believers in a specific faith