Learning (Definition)

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) Definition and key ideas

Definition: A type of learning where an organism learns to connect 2 stimuli, causing a neutral stimulus to produce a response Key ideas: - Learning a connection between 2 stimuli -Often Involving automatic / reflexive behavior

Neutral Stimulus (NS) Classical Conditioning

Doesn't naturally cause the response (EX. Bell before training)

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Classical Conditioning

Naturally causes a response (EX. Food)

Unconditioned Response (UCR) Classical Conditioning

Natural, automatic response (EX. salivation to food)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Classical Conditioning

Former neutral stimulus after learning (EX. Bell after training)

Conditioned Response (CR) Classical Conditioning

Learned response to CS (EX. Salivating to bell)

How Classical Conditioning Happens

1)Present the neutral stimulus (Bell) 2)Immediately present the unconditioned stimulus (Food) 3)Repeat several times (Pavlov used about 8 pairings) 4)The neutral stimulus becomes the Conditioned stimulus 5)The conditioned stimulus alone causes the conditioned response

Requirements for strong Classical Conditioning

-Contiguity: VERY short time delay between CS and UCS -Contingency: The CS MUST reliably predict the UCS

Extinction (Classical Conditioning Term)

The conditioned response gradually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly present without the unconditioned stimulus (EX. Bell-> No food-> Eventually No Salivation!)

Spontaneous Recovery (Classical Conditioning Term)

A previously extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after time has passed or the organism returns to the original setting

Stimulus Generalization (Classical Conditioning Term)

Stimuli similar to the CS also produce CR (EX. Different bell-> Still causes salivtion)

Stimulus discrimination (Classical Conditioning Term)

Learning to respond ONLY to the original CS, nothing similar (EX. Dog salivates only to the original bell)

Uses of classical conditioning

-Preparing organisms for likely events -Advertising (associating products w/ celebrities, music, colors, emotions) -Development of phobias -Explains conditioned emotional responses

Important Characteristics of Classical Conditioning

-Automatic -Involves reflexes / involuntary behavior -Learns relationships between stimuli -Cannot teach every behavior

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) Definition and followed by

Definition: Learning in which behavior changes because of its consequences Behavior is followed by either: -Reinforcement -Punishment

Reinforcement (Operant Conditioning)

Anything that increases the likelihood a behavior will occur again. (EX. Praise, money, food, freedom, removing pain) -More effective long-term

Punishment (Operant Conditioning)

Anything that decrease the likelihood a behavior will occur again. (EX. Jail, loss of privileges, pain, removal of rewards) -Less effective long-term

Extinction (Operant Conditioning)

Behavior disappears because reinforcement stops (EX. No pay-> eventually stop working)

Stimulus Generalization (Operant Conditioning)

Similar stimuli produce same behavior

Discrimination (Operant Conditioning)

Learning to respond only to the correct stimulus (EX. Answering only YOUR phone)

Shaping (Operant Conditioning)

Teaching complex behaviors by reinforcing small steps toward the final behavior (EX. Animal training, teaching children new words)

Chaining (Operant Conditioning)

Teaching a sequence of behaviors by reinforcing each step (EX. Dance routines, maze navigation, multi-step task)

Difference between Shaping and Chaining (Operant Conditioning)

-Shaping: One behavior learned gradually -Chaining: Several behaviors linked together

Conditioned Taste Aversion (Definition and Characteristics)

Definition: developing an aversion to a food after becoming sick Characteristics: -Can happen after 1 experience -Learned very quickly (EX. Food-> Illness-> Avoidant of food)

Sensitive period

A limited period early in life when certain experiences MUST OCCUR for normal development.

Social learning (AKA Modeling and Imitation)

Learning by observing others, people learn by watching whether others are rewarded or punished. (EX. Aggression, manners, empathy, customs)

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment What happened?-

Children watched an adult behave aggressively toward a Bobo Doll

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment Results-

Children who observed aggressive behavior: -imitated the aggression -Played more aggressively than children who did not observe aggression

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment Conclusion-

Aggression can be learned through observation, not just direct experience

Cognitive Maps (AKA Spatial Awareness)

Mental representations of locations and directions (EX. Mentally picturing your house while away)

Memory: Process of...

-Encoding: Putting information into memory -Storage: keeping information in memory -Retrieval: bringing information back into awareness

Memory sequence

Encoding-> Storage-> Retrieval

First step of Memory

Encoding -First step of Memory -Converts info. into a form the brain can store -Poor encoding is one of the biggest reasons people forget

Second step of Memory

Storage -Maintaining info. over time -Info. must stay active or it may be lost

Third step of Memory

Retrieval -Bringing stored info. back into consciousness -Used when answering questions or recalling memories

Example of good encoding

Taking notes, practice tests, reading multiple times, making connections between new info. and info. already known

Why do we forget?

1)Trivial Information 2)Problems During Memory Stages 3)Interference

Trivial Information (Why do we forget?)

-The brain naturally discards unimportant info -Makes memory more efficient

Problems During Memory Stages (Why do we forget?)

-Most forgetting happens because of problems with: -Encoding * -Retrieval

Interference (Why do we forget?)

-Similar info. competes with other memories -Confusion during recall (EX. trying to count wile somebody else does nearby)

First stage of Memory (Info. Processing Model: Characteristics)

Sensory Memory Characteristics: -First stage of memory -Stores exact copy of sensory information -Lasts about 1-4 seconds -"Snap shot" high accuracy If attention isn't given, it may cause info to disappear!

Second stage of Memory (Info. Processing Model: Characteristics)

Short-term Memory (STM) Characteristics: -Holds info for 15-25 seconds -Stores the meaning of info -Easily disrupted by: Stress, lack of sleep, hunger, interference (Average STM capacity: about 5-9 pieces of info)

Third stage of Memory (Info. Processing Model: Characteristics)

Longterm Memory (LTM) Characteristics: -Nearly unlimited capacity -Stores info for long periods of time -Receives info transferred from STM

Types of Memory

Declarative Memory (Explicit Memory) -Episodic Memory Procedural Memory (Implicit Memory)

Declarative Memory (Explicit Memory)

For facts, info. you can consciously state (EX. names, dates, vocab, historical facts)

Episodic Memory

A type of declarative memory Stores: -Personal Experiences -Life events Usually emotional and detailed (EX. Birthday Party, Graduation, First day of school)

Procedural Memory (Implicit Memory)

Memory for skills and habits (EX. riding a bike, swimming, typing, drawing)

Key differences between Declarative and Procedural

Declarative: -Facts -Can explain it Procedural: -Skills -Can perform it

Mnemonics (Memory Aid) Definition and methods

7 Methods that improve memory: 1. Chunking 2. Rehearsal 3. Elaborative Rehearsal 4. Relating Information 5. First-letter Mnemonics 6. Acronyms 7. Methods of Loci

Chunking (Mnemonics)

Grouping info. into meaningful units (EX. 310-228-2106 vs. 3102282106)

Rehearsal (Mnemonics)

Repeating info Keeps info active in STM

Elaboratie Rehearsal (Mnemonics)

Adding meaning to info. (EX. songs, poems, sentences, connecting ideas) Works best with simple repetition!

Relating Information (Mnemonics)

Connect new info. to known info.

First-letter Mnemonics (Mnemonics)

EX. Roy G BIV

Acronyms (Mnemonics)

EX. NASA, DARE, IQ

Method of Loci (Mnemonics)

Remembering info. by associating it with familiar locations. Especially strong / useful for individuals with strong spatial memory!

Amnesia (Definition and possible causes)

Definition: Loss or deterioration of memory Possible causes: -stroke, head injury, drugs, aging, brain surgery

H.M. (Henry Molaison) Case Importance & Surgery-

One of the most important psychology cases ever! Doctors removed about: -2/3 of the hippocampus -Amygdala

H.M. (Henry Molaison) Case Memory after surgery (preserved)-

-childhood memories -early memories -new procedural memories (skills) such as: mirror drawing, video games, puzzles

H.M. (Henry Molaison) Case Memory after surgery (impaired)-

Retrograde Amnesia: -Lost memories from about 1-3 years BEFORE surgery Severe Anterograde Amnesia: -Could not form new declarative memories (Facts) -Forgot names, facts, and recent events within minutes

What H. M. Taught Scientists

1. Short-term and Long-term memory are different systems 2. Different brain regions control different memory types 3. the hippocampus does NOT permanently store memories instead it: Transfers info from STM-> LTM (VERY important concept)

Dementia (Definition and possible cognitive ability loss)

Definition: General Loss of Cognitive abilities. May include: -Memory loss, Confusion, personality changes, Poor reasoning, Language problems

Alzheimer's Disease (Definition and statistics)

Definition: The MOST severe form of demntia Statistics (Lecture): -About 13% of people over 65 -About 50% of people over 85

Alzheimer's Disease (Progression)

Early: -Forgetting names -Forgetting recent events Later: -Retrograde amnesia (loss of 1-3 years prior) -Loss of procedural memory (skills) -Total Dependance on caregivers

Alzheimer's Disease (Fatality and Average course)

Average course: About 8years from onset death Eventually Fatal!

Biology of Alzheimer's

-Begins in the Hippocampus, Neurons mutate and die -Results: Plaques and tangles kill neurons, eventually affecting the entire brain

Plaques (Definition)

Abnormal protein deposits between neurons

Tangles (Definition)

Twisted protein fibers inside neurons

Symptoms of Alzheimer's

Memory loss, confusion, difficulty communicating, personality changes, poor judgement, depression, paranoia

Prevention / Risk reduction of Alzheimer's

Exercise regularly, eat healthy fats, keep mentally active, control blood pressure, at more fruits and veggies, avoid smoking, increase folate-rich foods, avoid alcohol, some medications temporally increase acetylcholine

Intelligence (Definition)

Definition: The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, think abstractly, and adapt to new situations

Intelligence (How it's tested)

-Primarily IQ TESTS These measure reasoning, problem-solving, memory, and verbal / spatial abilities.

Intelligence (Problem with the concept)

-Intelligence is difficult to define with one single measure -Intelligence tests may be influenced by culture, education, language, and life experiences -People have different kinds of strengths that may not be measured by IQ tests

Personality (Definition)

-Relatively enduring characteristics that differentiate people in social situations -the predictable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make us unique

Sigmund Freud (Main Idea)

-Personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts -Unconscious thoughts still influence behavior even if we aren't aware of them

Freud's therapy Methods

-Hypnosis -Free association -Dream analysis

The 3 Part of Personality

1)ID 2)Ego 3)Superego

Description of ID

-Present at Birth -Primitive drives: Hunger, thirst, sex (libido), aggression -Operates on the Pleasure principle -Wants immediate gratification -Irrational; ignores rules and consequences -Seeks tension reduction (Satisfy self) *Think: "I want it NOW!"*

Description of Ego

-Develops at age 1 -Operates on the Reality Principle -Balances the ID with reality -Makes practical decisions -Keeps ID under control (Balances each other) *Think: "What's Realistic?"*

Description of Superego

-Develops around ages 6-7 -Represents: Conscience, Morality, Society's rules -Learned from parents, teachers, and authority figures -Encourages doing what's right *Think: "What's right?"*

Defense Mechanisms (Definition)

Unconscious ways people reduce anxiety by hiding or distorting uncomfortable thoughts or feelings

The 6 Defense Mechanisms

-Repression -Denial -Rationalization -Displacement -Regression -Projection

Repression

Pushes painful memories into the unconscious

Denial

Refuses to accept reality

Rationalization

Makes excuses for unacceptable behavior

Displacement

Redirects emotions toward a safer target (EX. Angry at your boss-> yell at family)

Regression

Returning to childish behavior under stress (EX. Adult throwing a temper tantrum)

Projection

Attributing own unwanted feelings onto someone else

Carl Jung (Beliefs / Ideas)

-Collective Learning -Archetype

Collective learning

-Shared unconscious inherited from human ancestors -Present at birth -Explains why humans across cultures share similar ideas and behaviors

Archetype

Inherited universal images or patterns (EX. Hero, Wise old man, Jester, villian)

Evidence for collective unconscious

Across nearly every culture: -Similar emotions (love/hate, etc) -Religions -Art -Music -etc.

Alfred Adler (Main idea)

People are motivated to achieve personal excellence, not just satisfy instincts

Striving for Superiority (Alfred Adler)

Desire to improve yourself and reach personal goals

Inferiority Complex (Alfred Adler)

Lasting feelings of inadequacy from childhood -Causes: temperament, family atmosphere, birth order

Compensation (Alfred Adler)

Working to overcome feelings of inferiority

Karen Horney (Main Idea and Important concept)

Main idea: Personality develops primarily through relationships, especially with parents Important concept: Parent-child relationship is the MOST important relationship

Humanistic Approach (Main Idea)

People are naturally good and strive to be their best self

Self Actualization (Humanistic Approach)

-Reaching your full potential - Different for everyone

Humanistic Approach in contrast to Freud

Belief that humans are not controlled by the unconscious like Freud says; they actively choose who they become (Free will)

Carl Rogers (Beliefs)

-Humans have free will -People actively shape their own lives -Childhood matters, but it does not determine the future -People can make the best decisions for themselves

Self-concept (Carl Rogers)

Who you believe you are

Ideal Self (Carl Rogers)

Who you want to become

Unconditional Positive Regard (Carl Rogers)

-Accepting someone without judgement -Important in Therapy

Client-centered Therapy (Carl Rogers)

-Therapist believes/ provides support without judgement -Believes client can solve their own problems

Trait Approach (Locus of control)

-Internal Locus of control -External Locus of control

Internal Locus of Control

You believe your actions determine your success or failure (EX. "I failed because I didn't study!")

External Locus of Control

You believe outside forces determine what happens (EX. "The teacher made the test impossible)

Big 5 Personality Traits

-Openness -Conscientiousness -Extravertism -Agreeable -Neuroticism (Aka OCEAN)

Characteristics of Openness

-Curious -Creative -Enjoys new experiences

Characteristics of Conscientiousness

-Organized -Responsible -Self-disciplined

Characteristics of Extraversion

-Outgoing -Social -Energetic

Characteristics of Agreeable

-Compassionate -Cooperative -Caring

Characteristics of Neuroticism

-Easily experiences negative emotions -Anxiety -Moodiness -Pessimism

Where does personality come from?

Combo of: -Genetics (Nature) -Environment (Nurture)

Twin Studies (Nature vs. nurture)

-Identical Twins have more similar personalities than regular siblings -Suggests a strong genetics influence

Adoption Studies (Nature vs. nurture)

-Adopted children resemble their biological parents more than their adoptive parents in personality

Conclusion (Nature vs. Nurture)

Evidence suggests genetics plays a major role in personality, especially traits like extraversion