Public opinion

The collective attitudes and beliefs of the public on political issues, leaders, and institutions.

Political socialization

The lifelong process through which individuals acquire political values, beliefs, and behaviors (family, school, media, peers).

Sample

A subset of a population selected for polling or research.

Population

The entire group whose opinions a poll aims to measure.

Sampling error

The margin of inaccuracy in poll results due to using a sample rather than the full population.

Cross‑cutting cleavages

Social divisions (race, class, religion, etc.) that overlap in ways that reduce political polarization.

Backgrounds and political opinions

How demographic factors (race, gender, education, religion) shape political attitudes.

Political ideology

A consistent set of beliefs about the role of government (e.g., liberalism, conservatism).

Socioeconomic status (SES)

A person’s social and economic position, usually measured by income, education, and occupation.

Self‑interest principle

People tend to support policies that benefit them personally.

Tracking polls

Polls repeated over time to measure changes in public opinion.

Push polls

Polls designed to influence respondents by asking misleading or loaded questions.

Exit polls

Surveys taken outside polling places to predict election results and analyze voter behavior.

Political participation

Any activity aimed at influencing government or politics.

Types of political participation

Conventional (voting, volunteering), unconventional (protests), and illegal (violence).

Terrorism

The use of violence against civilians to achieve political goals.

Direct action

Unconventional political participation such as protests, sit‑ins, or civil disobedience.

Supportive behavior

Actions expressing allegiance to government (e.g., attending patriotic events).

Influencing behavior

Actions intended to affect government policy (e.g., voting, lobbying).

Suffrage / franchise

The right to vote.

Office‑block ballot

candidates grouped by office.

Party‑column ballot

candidates grouped by party.

Progressivism

Early 20th‑century reform movement promoting direct democracy, anti‑corruption, and social justice.

Direct primary

Election in which voters choose a party’s nominee.

Recall

A procedure allowing voters to remove an elected official before their term ends.

Referendum

Voters approve or reject laws passed by the legislature.

Initiative

Citizens propose laws or constitutional amendments by petition.

Standard socioeconomic model

Theory that higher SES leads to higher political participation.

Purposes of elections

Select leaders, hold officials accountable, legitimize government, and shape policy direction.

Political party

An organization that seeks to win elections and influence government.

Party functions

Recruit candidates, organize elections, mobilize voters, and structure government.

Single‑issue party

A minor party focused on one policy area (e.g., Prohibition Party).

Nomination

The process of selecting a party’s candidate.

Political system

The set of institutions and processes that make and enforce public policy.

Critical election

An election that produces sharp changes in party loyalty.

Electoral realignment

Long‑term shift in party coalitions following a critical election.

Party identification

A person’s psychological attachment to a political party.

Party platform

A party’s official statement of policy positions.

National convention

A party meeting to nominate presidential candidates and adopt the platform.

Free‑rider problem

People benefit from a group’s actions without contributing to it.

Party conference

Meetings of party members in Congress to choose leaders and set strategy.

Congressional campaign committee

Party organizations in Congress that help elect members of their party.

Party machine

A strong, hierarchical party organization that trades favors for political support.

Responsible party government

A model in which parties offer clear choices and follow through when elected.

Election campaign

Organized effort to persuade voters to support a candidate.

Primary election

Election to choose a party’s nominee.

Closed primary

Only registered party members may vote.

Open primary

Voters choose which party’s primary to participate in.

Blanket primary

Voters choose candidates from any party for each office (struck down federally in 2000).

Presidential primary

Primary specifically for selecting delegates to the national convention.

Local caucus

Local party meeting where members choose delegates.

General election

Election in which voters choose among party nominees.

Open election

An election without an incumbent running.

Split ticket

Voting for candidates from different parties on the same ballot.

First‑past‑the‑post election

Winner is the candidate with the most votes, even without a majority.

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

Agency that enforces federal campaign finance laws.

Hard money

Regulated, limited contributions directly to candidates.

Soft money

Unregulated contributions to parties for “party‑building” activities (restricted since 2002).

Interest group functions

Represent members, educate the public, lobby government, and mobilize participation.

Program monitoring

Tracking government programs to ensure they align with group goals.

Agenda building

Bringing issues to the attention of policymakers.

Interest group entrepreneur

A person who organizes and leads an interest group.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

Organization that raises and donates money to political campaigns.

Direct lobbying

Personal contact with policymakers to influence decisions.

Grassroots lobbying

Mobilizing the public to pressure policymakers.

Information campaign

Efforts to shape public opinion through education and media.

Coalition building

Interest groups joining together to pursue shared goals.

Membership bias

Tendency for interest groups to represent wealthier, more educated individuals.

Citizen groups

Interest groups open to anyone who supports the cause (e.g., environmental groups).

Trade association

Interest groups representing businesses in a particular industry.