Thought

an extension of perception and memory. Mental representations are recalled to achieve a purpose (can be images, words or concepts)

reasoning

The process of generating and evaluating arguments and beliefs. Two sub-categories: inductive and deductive

Deductive reasoning

draws conclusions from a set of assumptions or premises

Inductive reasoning

reasoning formed from observation to general propositions generalising from specific instance to entire category eg. menou is a cat menou like showers conclusion = all cats like showers

Syllogism

a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions eg. all 30 yr old women are blonde holly is 30 conclusion = holly is blonde

Strategies for problem solving

algorithms mental simulations means ends analysis

Barriers to problem solving

functional fixedness - too fixated on an objects function ignoring other possible uses mental set - continually using the same method because its worked before confirmation bias - tendency to search for confirmation of what we already know

decision making

the process by which individuals weigh procs and cons of different alternatives to make a choice

explicit cognition

conscious manipulation of mental representations - deliberately thinking through how this is going to work for me.

implicit cognition

Behaviourists suggest people learn without conscious thought Pyschodynamic theory suggests that unconscious motives and emotions impact on problem solving and decision making.

what is the linguistic hypothesis on thoughts and words

thoughts are shaped by language the language you speak limits your thoughts not really accurate

where does thought occur in the brain?

The frontal lobes. dorsolateral - memory and explicit manipulation of representations through our conscious thought. ventromedial -the use of emotional reactions to guide decision making and behaviour.

mental model - what does it do?

involves a representation that describes, explains or predicts how things work eg. how cars work, model of a neuron, model of memory systems, etc.

Concepts

things about the way we store information about something - a mental representation of a category.

categories

how we assign an object to a concept

process of categorisation

involves recognising an object as a member of a category categorise things by : comparison with a list of defining features similarity/dissimilarity to prototypes

what is a prototype?

An idea that we have an abstraction that's been formed using the shared features or functions of an object across many instances eg. lorikeet easier to identify as a bird than a pannguin because it looks typically more like a bird in our brain over most instances,.

how is categorisation functional?

Multiple ways concepts can represent info: Shape, defining features, characteristic features and examples

what is the difference between defining and characteristic features?

defining - what it does, how it does it characteristic - what its made of and how it can be used

What is the hierarchy of concepts?

Most concepts are hierarchically ordered with subconcepts at varying levels of abstraction. Efficient thinking require choosing the right level of abstraction. Eg. mammal, to cat, to breed, etc.

Levels of categorisation

Basic: super broad Subordinate: more specific then basic eg. magpie Superordinate: More abstract than basic, members share few specific features, level of metaphor

Belief bias

conclusions that are believable are immediately thought to be true eg. if finger is cut - it bleeds my finger has blood on it conclusion = my finger is cut

Inductive vs Deductive reasoning

Inductive: greater activity in the left hemisphere of the brain Deductive: greater activity in the right hemisphere of the brain

reasoning by analogy

using what we know from a familiar situation and mapping it to this new situation. both novel and familiar situations must each contain a number of elements that can be mapped onto each other.

what can analogical reasoning be used for?

to solve problems, make inferences and categorise novel situations

What are the analogy constraints?

Relational similarity surface similarity

Relational similarity

in many analogies, the objects are not actually similar at all, but share similarities on a relational level eg. brain to a computer, both process info and make decisions but are completely different

Surface similarity

objects do bear some resemblance to each other - mainly in appearance. eg. creation of velcro, little sticky plant stuck to his dogs fur, - likened to the fuzz on velcro

benefits of analogical thinking

can be used to make conclusions about things we have not seen or experienced first hand - this is transitive inference.

What are the three points of problem solving?

Initial state - problem Operators - actions performed to solve issue Goal state - no problem

Different types of problems (problem clarity)

Well-defined: initial state, operators and goal state are easily determined Ill-defined: when info needed and criteria to determine when goal state has been met is vague eg. improving morale

Algorithms

systematic procedures that produce a solution to a simple issue

mental simulation

mentally rehearsing the steps needed to solve problem

means-end analysis

identifying different between initial and goal state then taking actions to remove the differences usually divides the problem to subgoals and taking small steps to the solution.

Heuristics

cognitive shortcuts for selecting amongst alternatives without considering each one individually.

representative heuristic

matching an object to its category - while ignoring the probability of it occurring

availability heuristic

decide events that we can easily recall are common and typically eg. plane crashed shown more on TV - but car crashes are more likely - but more likely to be afraid of flying than driving.

Bounded rationality

People are rational within the bounds of their environment, goals and cognitive resources. - we dont always have all info - time is limited BUT we do the best with what we have.

What are the units of language

SOUNDS - phonology MEANING - semantics ORGANISATION - syntax IMPLIED MEANING - pragmatics

phonemes

smallest units of sound (a, s, th)

morphemes

smallest units of meaning (house, the, ing)

phrases

groups of words that act as a unit and convey meaning

sentences

organised sequence of words

Aphasia

The disruption of language due to brain damage BROCAS AREA - smooth production of language. Difficulty accessing and producing speech eg. stuttering, slow speech WERNICKES AREA - comprehension of speech. difficulty understanding speech

Linguistic relativity principle

Made by benjamin lee whorf the complexity of the number of words in our language dictates that complexity of ideas we can have.

Nonverbal communication

SOLAR GPA

Discourse

the way people ordinarily speak, hear, read and write in interconnected sentences

Different views on language development?

Nurture - language is LEARNED - skinner behaviourist Nature - some aspects of language are innate - Chomsky

What is the main case of nuture?

Kids imitate parents kids recieve differential reinforcement for speech sounds parents use positive reinforcement and shaping to teach language

What is the main case of nature?

language acquisition appears universal across culture Kids can use complex grammar rules long before other mental processes eg. maths Language acquisition device (LAD): an innate set of neural structures for acquiring language

critical periods for language development

assumes that an organism must develop a function within a limited time frame or it will not develop at all. eg. kids learn 2nd language way easier than adults